IRLF 


en? 


&&  E-STEC*^ 
328  Broadway 
^'W-VOB-^'  Jl  IK 


REESE 
UNIVERSITY 

Received 
'  ^ 

Accessions  No.~. 


LIBRARY 

••    THK 

CALIFORN 


OF 


IA 


Shelf 'No 


A    TREATISE   ON 


SOILS,  PLANTS,  AND  MANURES, 


BY 


FRANCIS   WYATT, 

PROFESSOR  OP  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,  CHEMICAL  ANALYST, 
ETC. 

AUTHOR  OP  "THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  SULPHURIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE, 
"THE  PHOSPHATES  OP  THE  WORLD,''  ETC.,  ETC. 


NEW    YORK: 

C.   E.   BARTHOLOMEW,   PUBLISHER, 

22  COLLEGE  PLACE. 

1886. 


** 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1886,  by 

C.   E.   BARTHOLOMEW, 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 


•   '  v 


TO    THE   AGRICULTURIST    OF   AMERICA. 


MY  DEAR  Sm  . 

The  pages  which  I  now  pass  into  your  hands  are  the 
result  of  much  study  and  hard  work,  combined  with  a  long  special 
experience  in  matters  pertaining  to  your  vocation.  They  have  been 
written  solely  for  your  information  and  advantage,  and  I  trust  their 
sincerity  and  utility  will  be  found  to  fully  justify  my  familiarity  in 
thus  personally  addressing  you. 

For  many  years  past  I  have  had  constant  intercourse  with  men  of 
your  profession,  and  with  the  b^esf  practical  experts  in  chemical 
manures  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and  I  judge  that  the  time  has  come 
to  impart  to  you  not  only  the  results  of  my  experience  with  them, 
but  also  of  my  own  personal  investigations. 

You  will,  perhaps,  tell  me  that  too  much  has  already  been  written 
and  said  upon  the  purely  chemical  side  of  this  great  question  ;  that 
you  have  bought  and  read  books  and  periodicals  without  number, 
and  that  you  are  not  very  much  further  advanced  to-day  than  you 
might  have  been  had  you  kept  your  money  and  read  no  books  at  all. 

I  fancy  I  can  hear  you  saying,  that  men  of  my  profession  have 
not  yet  found  out  the  secret  of  imparting  knowledge  to  men  of  yours ; 
that  where  you  have  too  little  theory,  tJiey  have  too  little  practice, 
and  that  their  unfortunate  habit  of  wrapr  -ng  round  their  teachings 
a  dark  mantle  of  scientific  words  which  you  do  not  understand,  has 
hitherto  occasioned  you  more  confusion  than  benefit. 


iv 

That  because  of  this  there  is  a  lack  of  good  special  literature,  I 
am  far  from  pretending ;  indeed,  I  doubt  not  that  I  could  derive 
benefit  from  much  of  it,  were  I  to  read  and  digest  it.  But  I 
nevertheless  maintain  that  the  books  on  agriculture,  while  not  above 
your  intellect  or  intelligence,  are,  as  a  rule,  written  in  a  style  beyond 
the  plane  of  your  scientific  education. 

Were  I  to  offer  you  the  best  book  written  in  the  Latin  tongue, 
treating  upon  a  subject  familiar  to  you,  the  chances  are  ten  to  one 
that  you  would  not  comprehend  a  word,  and  the  book  would  be 
tossed  into  a  corner.  Should  one  of  your  children  —  having  been 
taught  to  read  and  translate  the  Latin  language  —  stumble  upon  this 
book,  and  read  it  to  you  in  your  own  mother  tongue,  you  would  be 
struck  with  wonder  at  the  value  of  its  truths  and  the  simplicity  of 
its  lessons. 

I  fancy  this  is  exactly  the  case  between  you  and  our  contempo- 
rary scientists,  who,  persisting  in  addressing  you  in  unfamiliar 
language,  are  answerable  for  your  now  putting  a  number  of  good 
books,  that  are  written  for  you,  "  on  the  shelf." 

My  earnest  endeavor  has  been  to  bear  all  these  things  in  mind  ; 
thus,  while  seeking  not  to  deviate  one  inch  from  the  broad  line  laid 
down  by  true  agricultural  chemistry,  I  have  sought  to  treat  each 
subject  in  the  plainest  language  possible. 

If  I  succeed  in  doing  no  more  than  lay  the  foundation  upon 
which  you  can  pile  up  future  knowledge  ;  if  I  merely  convince  you 
of  the  necessity  for  thought,  study  and  experiment,  I  shall  consider 
that  I  have  aided  you  in  making  the  first  great  stride  in  the  right  di- 
rection, and  shall  find  in  that  fact  alone  a  sufficient  reward  for  the 
service  I  have  performed. 

I  am,  my  dear  sir, 

Very  truly  yours, 

FRANCIS  WYATT. 

NEW  YORK  MERCANTILE  EXCHANGE  BUILDING, 

COR.  HUDSON  &  HARRISON  STS.  , 

NEW  YORK  CITY. 


INDEX. 


CHAPTER  I.  PAGE 

General  Introductory  Remarks  —  Influence  of  Climate  —  Origin  of  Scientific 

Agriculture  —  Its  Progress  in  America 5 

CHAPTER  II. 
Theory  of  Scientific  Agriculture  — Formation  of  the  Globe  —  Its  Temperature 

—  Composition  of  the  Earth  —  Its   Principal  Rocks  —  Chemistry  of 
Vegetation  —  Necessity  for  Geological  Knowledge  —  Remarks  on  Drain- 
age and  Irrigation 9 

CHAPTER  III. 

Minerals  Necessary  and  Injurious  to  Plant  Life  —  How  Plants  Absorb  Their 
Food  —  The  Gases  and  Their  Various  Transformations  —  Nitrogen  — 
Phenomenon  of  Nitrification  in  the  Soil  —  Sources  of  Nitrogen  —  Its 
Manufacture  —  Its  Fixation  —  Its  Assimilation  —  The  Necessity  for  Its 
Application  as  Manure 13 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Phosphates  —  Discovery  of  their  Active  Principle  —  Use  of  Bone  Manure  — 
Discovery  of  Mineral  Phosphates  —  How  They  Occur  in  Nature  -  Their 
Form  in  the  Soil  —  How  They  are  Made  Soluble  —  How  They  are  As- 
similated by  Plants  — Migrations  of  Phosphorus  —  The  Necessity  for 
Artificially  Introducing  Phosphoric  Acid  as  Manure 18 

CHAPTER  V. 

Potash  :  Its  Action  on  the  Soil  —  Is  it  Essential  to  Plant  Life  ?  —  Results  of 
Direct  Experiments  —  Its  Necessity  Made  Clear  —  Sources  of  Its  Supply 

—  Lime  —  The  Liming  of  Soils  —  Its  Chemical  Action  —  Its  Absorbing 
Powers  —  Its  Action  on  Sulphurous  Ores  —  Its  Action  on  Iron  —  Alu- 
mina and  Phosphoric  Acid  in  the  Soil  —  Necessity  for  Its  Abundant 

Use  23 

CHAPTER  VI. 

How  Soils  Lose  Their  Nitrogen  —  Table  of  Proportions  —  Necessity  of  Soil 

Analysis  —  Table  of  Physical  Elements  and  Chemical  Constituents 28 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Physically  Perfect  Soils  —  Strong  and  Light  Soils  —  How  to  Amend  Clayey 
Land— Clay  Burning  — Treatment  of  Sandy  Soils  —  Green  Crops  as 
Manure  —  Remarks  on  Disintegration  —  "  Fairy  Rings  :"  Their  Exist- 
ence Explained  —  How  to  Keep  Pace  with  the  Times 33 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Progress  of  the  Manure  Trade  in  the  United  States  —  Low  Price  versus  Real 
Value  —  How  the  Farmer  is  Swindled  —  Bogus  Manures  —  Necessity 
for  Analysis  Demonstrated  —  How  to  Stamp  Out  the  Evil  —  Advice  to 
Manufacturers  ...  38 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Different  Kinds  of  Manure  —  Notes  on  Vegetable  Manures  —  Animal 
Products  —  Their  Annual  Reckless  Waste  —  Estimate  of  the  Loss  to 
Agriculture  —  Hints  on  Their  Preservation  and  Utilization  —  Guanos 
Described  and  Analyzed  —  Their  Variable  Quality  —  Fish  Manures  — 
Table  of  Nitrogenous  Substances 44 

CHAPTER  X. 

Farm-Yard  Manures  —  Composition  of  Their  Liquid  and  Solid  Elements  — 
Comparative  Value  of  Absorbents,  with  Analyses  —  Composition  of 
Various  Straws  —  Superior  Value  of  the  Liquid  Substance  —  How  to 
Preserve  and  Utilize  it  —  Treatment  of  Manure  Heaps  —  How  to  Com- 
plete Their  Value  as  Fertilizers  —  Their  Decomposition  —  Formation 
and  Description  of  Humus  —  Experiments  on  Freshly-Made  and  Fer- 
mented Manures  —  Results  of  Each  Experiment  —  General  Remarks 50 

CHAPTER  XL 

Mineral  Manures  —  Bones,  and  What  They  Taught  Us  —  Sulphuric  Acid  and 
Nitrate  of  Soda  —  Bone  Ash  — Animal  Charcoal,  or  Bone  Black  — Bone 
Meal  —  Sulphate  of  Ammonia  :  Its  Great  Power  of  Decomposing  Other 
Manures  —  How  to  Detect  Impure  Nitrate  of  Soda  —  Nitrate  of  Potash, 
or  Saltpetre  —  Phosphate  of  Lime  —  River  Phosphates  —  Canadian 
Phosphate  —  A  Ridiculous  Extortion 57 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Sulphur  —  Its  Occurrence  in  Nature  —  The  Mines  of  Sicily  —  The  Refining 
Process  —  Iceland  Soufrieres  and  Solfataras  —  Use  of  Sulphur  in  Man- 
ufacture —  Pyrites  and  How  They  Occur  —  Analytical  Tables  —  General 
Annual  Consumption  —  The  Mines  of  Spain  Described 69 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Sulphuric  Acid  Manufacture  —  Sketch  of  Its  Past  History  —  Pyrites  Burn- 
ing—Glover's Towers  —  Hints  on  the  Construction  of  Leaden  Chambers 

—  Chemistry  of   the  Process  —  Denitration  —  Gay-Lussac   Towers  — 
General  Remarks 75 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Superphosphates  —  Uncertainty  of  Their  Composition  —  Their  Manufacture 
Described  —  How  to  Manipulate  When  Made  —  Nature  of  the  Decom- 
position Process  —  Explanation  of  the  Loss  in  Weight  —  What  is 
Soluble  Phosphate  ?  —  Discussion  of  Its  Merits  in  the  Field  —  Its  Ac- 
tion in  the  Soil  —  Necessity  for  Careful  Analysis  Made  Further  Manifest 

—  Precipitated  Phosphates  :    Their  Manufacture,    Their  Virtues   and 
Superiority  —  Use  of  Complete  Manures,  with  Examples  and  Statistics 

—  Remarks  on  Home-made  Chemical  Manures 80 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Chemical  Analysis  —  How  to  Read  and  Understand  Chemists'  Certificates  — 

Use  of  "Complete"  and  "  Simple  "  Manures  —  Conclusion 89 


MODERN  HIGH  FARMING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE 

ORIGIN     OF     SCIENTIFIC     AGRICULTURE ITS     PROGRESS     IN 

AMERICA. 

7J  GRICULTURE  may  be  truly  said  to  be  the  foundation  stone 

/  i  or  rock  upon  which  is  built  every  nation's  riches,  since  the 
oJ  productions  of  nature  are  the  materials  of  art ;  and  it  is  un- 
deniable that  the  prosperity  of  the  whole  human  race  has  always 
been  dependent  upon  three  powerful  physical  agents —  Climate,  Soil, 
and  Food. 

The  first  thing  necessary  to  the  cultivation  of  a  community  is 
wealth,  as  without  it  there  can  be  no  leisure,  and  without  leisure  no 
opportunity  for  the  development  of  the  intellectual  faculties  and  the 
acquisition  of  that  knowledge  upon  which  the  progress  of  all  civili- 
zation depends. 

As  will  be  shown  by  a  very  brief  retrospective  examination,  the 
rapidity  with  which  capital  is  accumulated  in  a  new  country  must 
vary  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  its  climate  and  the  fertility  of 
its  soil — the  latter  regulating  the  returns  made  to  any  given  amount 
of  labor  and  care,  the  former  regulating  the  energy  and  the  conti- 
nuity of  that  labor. 

The  only  portions  of  the  American  Continent  which  could  lay 
any  claim  to  civilization  before  the  appearance  of  Europeans,  were 


6  MODERN  HIGH   FARMING. 

those  comprised  in  its  very  hottest  parts  —  the  tract  which  stretches 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Mexico  in  the  northern,  and  to  Peru 
in  the  southern  tropic. 

If  we  momentarily  set  aside  —  to  be  dealt  with  later  on  —  the 
questions  of  geological  and  chemical  varieties  of  soil,  we  may  at 
once  assume  that  the  two  regulating  causes  of  fertility  are  combined 
heat  and  moisture  —  the  f  ruitf ulness  or  sterility  of  the  land  being 
dependent  upon  their  abundance  or  deficiency.  Now  as  regards 
moisture,  neither  in  North  nor  in  South  America  does  one  great 
river  empty  itself  into  the  Pacific  —  the  whole  of  them  being  upon 
the  eastern  coast ;  and  as  regards  heat,  nature  has  been  equally 
partial  in  its  endowment  of  the  west.  Whether  the  natural  differ- 
ence of  temperature  resulting  from  this  curious  phenomenon  forms 
part  of  some  universal  scheme,  or  whether  we  are  dealing  with  a  pe- 
culiar instance,  we  will  not  stay  to  discuss  ;  the  fact  and  its  influence 
upon  the  early  history  of  this  country  are  indisputable  —  the  two 
great  conditions  of  fertility  not  having  been  naturally  united  in  any 
part  of  the  entire  continent  north  of  Mexico.  The  primitive  inhab- 
itants were,  therefore,  in  this  difficulty:  on  one  side  they  wanted 
heat,  while  on  the  other  they  had  no  irrigation  ;  and  the  result  was 
that  until  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  acquired  knowledge  of 
Europeans  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  difficulty,  there  existed  no 
agriculture,  no  accumulation  of  wealth,  and  no  progress  north  of  the 
twentieth  parallel,  even  toward  that  rough  civilization  so  easily 
attained  by  the  nations  of  India  and  Egypt.  For  a  direct  contrast 
to  what  went  on  in  the  north,  we  have  now  only  to  turn  to  the 
narrow  tract  of  land  lying  south  of  the  twentieth  parallel,  of  which 
the  peculiar  configuration  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  continent 
until  it  reaches  the  Isthmus  of  Panama —  secures  to  it  a  large  extent 
of  coast. 

This  southern  part  of  North  America  thus  assumes  the  character 
of  an  island  — with  that  feature  of  an  insular  climate,  the  increase 
of  moisture  consequent  upon  the  watery  vapor  arising  from  the  sea, 
and  the  augmentation  of  rainfall  natural  to  its  vicinity.  It  was 
therefore  the  only  portion  possessing  a  natural  combination  of  the 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  7 

two  essential  elements  —  its  equatorial  situation  giving  it  heat,  and 
the  shape  of  its  land  humidity;  and  it  was  also  the  only  portion 
which  arose  out  of  barbarism. 

Without  going  so  far  back  into  the  history  of  this  country  for  ex- 
amples in  favor  of  our  argument,  we  need  only  have  turned  to  the 
sandy  plains  of  California,  where,  until  they  were  quite  recently  sub 
jected  to  irrigation  by  the  ingenuity,  enterprise  and  enormous  capi- 
tal of  a  civilized  community,  nothing  met  the  traveler's  mournful 
gaze  but  the  contemplation  of  a  sterile  desert;  but  where  are  now 
displayed  all  that  marvelous  exuberance  of  soil  that  has  never  failed 
to  characterize  a  virgin  country  when  the  natural  physical  elements 
have  not  been  wanting. 

It  would  be  useless  in  such  a  work  as  this  to  attempt  to  trace  the 
progress  of  agriculture  back  to  the  wandering  husbandmen  who 
roamed  from  place  to  place  with  their  immense'  flocks  until,  by  the 
eventual  adoption  of  a  fixed  abode  and  the  expenditure  of  time  and 
labor,  a  certain  price  or  value  was  accorded  to  their  land  ;  and  we 
must  therefore  content  ourselves  with  the  broad  statement  that  un- 
til long  after  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  the  agri- 
cultural arts,  as  practiced  by  the  most  advanced  of  the  European 
communities,  differed  but  in  trifling  details  from  those  exercised  by 
the  ancient  Romans  and  described  in  Columella's  great  work  ' '  De 
Re  Rustica" 

Alarmed  by  the  falling  off  of  crops  and  general  signs  of  the  ex- 
haustion of  their  soils,  the  European  scientists  have  been  moved  to 
bring  to  bear  upon  the  question  the  acquired  knowledge  of  the 
geologist,  botanist  and  chemist,  and  to  such  men  as  Liebig,  Lawes, 
Gilbert,  Dumas,  Boussingault,  Barral,  Malagati,  Payen  and  George 
Ville  we  are  now  indebted  for  a  progress  which  has  enabled  us  to 
become  almost  independent  of  natural  causes,  and  for  a  literature  of 
applied  and  applicable  truths  second  to  none  in  value  and  importance 
throughout  the  whole  range  of  scientific  investigation. 

That  a  goodly  number  of  intelligent  American  agriculturists 
have  awakened  to  all  this,  and  have  long  been  following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  their  European  brethren,  is  proved  by  the  extension  of 


8  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

sulphuric  acid  and  fertilizer  manufacture  in  this  country  ;  but  there 
still  remains  an  immense  majority  of  farmers  great  and  small,  high 
and  low,  in  north,  south,  east  and  west,  who  have  made  no  study 
of  scientific  agriculture  ;  who  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  times  ; 
who  even  look  with  suspicion  and  distrust  upon  those  who  would 
enlighten  them  ;  and  who  are  to-day  unable  to  understand  why  their 
annual  crops,  though  perhaps  rotatory,  are  no  longer  so  abundant, 
nor  of  so  good  a  quality  as  they  were  wont  to  be  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago.  Ours  being  essentially  an  age  of  thought  and  progress, 
the  time  has  come  when  every  man  must  realize  that  agriculture  can 
only  remain  a  profitable  pursuit,  on  the  condition  of  yearly  obtain- 
ing from  every  acre  a  maximum  and  cheap  return,  and  that  in  order 
to  succeed  in  this  he  must  restore  to  the  soil  those  elements  which 
it  once  contained,  but  which  in  the  process  of  nourishing  the  plants, 
have  been  absorbed  and  taken  away. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THEORY  OP   SCIENTIFIC   AGRICULTURE FORMATION  OP  THE  GLOBE 

—  ITS    TEMPERATURE COMPOSITION   OF   THE   EARTH 

ITS    PRINCIPAL    ROCKS CHEMISTRY     OF     VEGETATION 

NECESSITY     FOR     GEOLOGICAL     KNOWLEDGE REMARKS     ON 

DRAINAGE   AND   IRRIGATION. 

The  theory  of  scientific  agriculture  is  based  upon  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  soils,  plants,  animals  and  manures,  and 
it  is  evident  that  until  these  elements  are  thoroughly  understood, 
no  attempts  at  improvement  or  plans  for  increased  production  can 
possibly  be  successful.  It  is  curiously  illustrative  of  the  general 
ignorance  that  very  few  people  know  anything  of  the  earth  they 
tread  or  the  soil  they  cultivate,  in  what  way  it  was  formed,  or  what 
is  its  composition.  How,  then,  can  they  imagine  the  mighty  in- 
undations and  the  terrible  upheavals  ?  How  conceive  anything  of 
that  gigantic  disemboweling  of  the  earth  -  monster,  and  of  the 
awful  torrents  of  burning  lavas  which  it  has  vomited  forth  ?  Can 
they  realize  that  our  tallest  mountains,  even  those  which  from  their 
height  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  were  once  submerged  in 
rolling  seas  ?  or  that  the  rocks  and  cliffs  we  meet  with  in  our  plains 
are  nothing  more  than  agglommerated  masses  of  organisms  that 
swarmed  the  waters  ? 

We  might  very  easily  allow  ourselves  to  be  carried  far  away  by 
this  seductive  topic,  but  must  needs  confine  our  pen  for  present 
purposes  to  a  brief  synopsis  of  elementary  facts  which,  if  they  serve 
no  other  purpose,  may  induce  some  of  our  readers  to  "seek  for  more." 


10  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Geologists  agree  in  supposing  that  our  globe  was  once  a  glowing 
mass  of  fire,  that  the  formation  of  the  earth's  crust  is  due  to  the 
gradual  process  of  cooling.  They  point  to  its  figure  and  compare  it 
to  that  of  a  liquid  rotatory  body  acted  upon  by  gravity,  and  from 
this  deduce  evidence  of  its  original  fluid  state.  The  volcanoes  actually 
in  a  state  of  eruption  prove  the  earth  to  have  an  internal  temperature 
independent  of  the  heat  of  the  sun  ;  and  from  observations  made  in 
the  deepest  mines  all  over  the  world,  it  would  appear  that  this  tem- 
perature, below  a  depth  of  one  hundred  feet,  increases  1°  Fahrenheit 
in  every  twenty  yards;  so  that,  presuming  the  rate  of  increase  to  be 
constant,  at  twenty  thousand  yards  we  should  arrive  at  a  low  red 
heat,  and  by  descending  still  lower,  this  would  be  sufficiently  in- 
creased to  maintain  all  kinds  of  minerals  in  a  state  of  fusion. 

The  different  species  of  rocks  of  which  the  earth  is  composed, 
may  be  divided  into  three  groups. 

FIRST— SANDSTONES.^These  belong  to  every  geological  period, 
are  sedimentary  and  of  infinite  variety,  though  differing  only  in 
the  size  of  the  grains  of  which  they  are  composed  and  in  their 
degree  of  texture  and  compactness.  When  occurring  in 
connection  with  clays,  marls,  chalks,  iron-ores,  glauconite,  or 
felspar,  in  varying  proportions,  they  undergo  transformations 
which  convert  them  into  vegetable  soils. 

SECOND— LIMESTONES.— These  are  organically  formed  rocks, 
made  up  of  the  remains  of  animal  life,  corals,  shells  and 
bones,  cemented  and  so  intimately  bound  together  as  to  neces- 
sitate the  minutest  investigation  for  their  recognition. 

THIRD— GRANITE.  —  These  are  igneous  rocks,  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  owe  their  formation  to  the  cause  of  interior  heat.  They 
are  composed  of  numerous  distinct  orders  of  crystals  such  as 
felspar,  mica,  gneiss,  quartz  and  hornblende,  mixed  up 
and  not  in  regular  beds. 

The  history  of  these  three  great  groups  of  rocks  may  therefore  be 
aptly  termed  the  history  of  the  earth,  since  their  decomposition  un- 
der the  combined  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  water,  during  a 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  11 

long  period,  ultimately  produces  highly  fertile  soils  containing  sili- 
cates of  aluminum,  potassium,  sodium,  magnesium,  iron,  phosphates, 
sulphates,  and  chlorides. 

The  soil  at  first  resulting  from  this  gradual  decomposition  forms 
very  thin  layers,  in  which  only  the  lower  orders  of  plants  find  suffi- 
cient food  to  fructify  —  deriving  from  the  air  and  the  rain  their 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  In  the  natural  process  of 
death  and  decay,  these  fresh  elements  of  fertility — in  various  states 
of  combination  —  are  transferred  by  the  plants  to  the  soil,  which  is 
thus  enabled  to  afford  nourishment  to  a  higher  vegetation,  and,  by  at- 
tracting to  it  the  animals  in  search  of  vegetable  food,  receive  from 
them  other  elements  conducive  to  the  highest  fertility. 

The  study  of  Geology  —  even  if  only  elementary — will  therefore 
enable  the  agriculturist  to  accurately  guage  the  natural  resources  of 
his  country,  and  will  teach  him  how  to  adapt  his  ideas  upon  drain- 
age, irrigation,  plowing  and  sowing  to  the  surrounding  circum- 
stances of  soil  and  climate.  He  will  learn  to  mix  and  combine  differ- 
ent soils,  and  understand  that  certain  overlying  beds  on  his  lands 
may  not  at  all  resemble  in  composition  or  be  derived  from  the  under- 
lying rocks,  but  may  have  been  carried  from  immense  distances  and 
deposited  by  water.  Then  it  may  frequently  happen  that  in  some 
fields  he  may  have  a  very  stiff  and  unworkable  clay — which  his  geo- 
logical map  would  show  to  repose  upon  a  deposit  of  sand  or  of  lime- 
stone, and  in  such  a  case  he  could  at  once  (after  previously  verifying 
the  fact  by  some  preliminary  boring  or  deeper  ploughing)  open  up  a 
quarry  and  supply  his  clays  with  the  necessary  elements  for  their 
conversion  into  loam. 

The  acquirement  of  knowledge  will  naturally  induce  us  to  seek 
by  art  to  assist  or  even  to  improve  upon  nature,  and  well-considered 
preferences  will  be  accorded  to  certain  cultures  and  breeds  of  cat- 
tle, while  into  the  soil  will  be  introduced  those  elements  of  fertility 
in  which  it  has  been  proved  to  be  deficient. 

Sufficient  attention  will  be  paid  to  drainage,  the  necessity  of  free- 
ing the  land  from  an  excess  of  water  being  even  greater  than  the 
introduction  of  fertilizing  elements  ;  for,  although  under  proper  con- 


12  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

ditions  the  latter  will  undoubtedly  increase  the  quantity  and  value 
of  the  crops,  too  much  water  will  effectually  prevent  us  from 
drawing  any  crops  at  all.  Nothing,  therefore,  can  ever  be  done  with 
land  anywhere,  if  it  be  not  properly  drained  where  there  is  too  much 
moisture,  or  properly  irrigated  where  the  necessary  natural  water 
supply  is  not  forthcoming.  It  is  because  of  the  vital  importance  of 
this  question  that  we  are  thus  emphatic  at  this  early  stage.  To 
ascertain  whence  such  an  excess  of  water  proceeds  is  not  by 
any  means  a  matter  of  difficulty ;  a  very  damp  climate,  a  spongy 
and  retentive  soil,  the  existence  of  underground  springs— all  these 
or  any  of  them  may  be  the  causes  of  disastrous  effects,  which  can 
be  easily  remedied  by  those  possessed  of  such  knowledge  as  we  have 
endeavored  to  describe.  In  the  first  of  the  cases  named,  the  evil 
may  be  overcome  by  ordinary  surface  drainage,  but  in  the  second, 
it  is  only  after  ascertaining  the  true  composition  of  the  soil,  that  we 
can  effect  such  mixtures  with  other  soil,  or  combinations  with  lime 
or  sand,  as  may  suggest  themselves  as  necessary,  while  in  the  third 
case,  the  construction  of  deep  underdrains  alone  will  carry  off  the 
water  from  the  sub-strata  without  allowing  it  to  reach  the  surface. 
Wherever  there  exists  a  faulty  or  careless  system  of  drainage, 
no  correct  estimate  of  the  agricultural  value  of  a  property  can 
possibly  be  formed,  for  although  from  its  excessive  dampness  a  soil 
may  remain  unproductive,  it  may,  nevertheless,  contain  all  the 
necessary  elements  of  fertility. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MINERALS     NECESSARY    AND     INJURIOUS     TO     PLANT     LIFE HOW 

PLANTS     ABSORB     THEIR     FOOD  THE     GASES     AND     THEIR 

VARIOUS    TRANSFORMATIONS NITROGEN PHENOMENON 

OF    NITRIFICATION    IN     THE    SOIL  SOURCES    OF    NITROGEN 

ITS     MANUFACTURE ITS    FIXATION ITS     ASSIMILA- 
TION   THE     NECESSITY    FOR    ITS    ARTIFICIAL    APPLICATION 

AS  MANURE. 

The  presence  of  a  considerable  number  of  mineral  substances  in 
the  soil  is  essential  to  the  healthy  growth  of  plants.  But,  while 
some  of  these  minerals,  such  as  magnesium,  manganese  and  fluor, 
take  no  part  in  furthering,  others  are  positively  fatal  to  their  de- 
velopment. Thus  one  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  iron  will  render  a 
soil  unproductive,  and  instances  are  not  wanting  where  one  per 
cent,  of  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  in  very  dry  regions,  has 
killed  all  vegetation  and  produced  sterility. 

We  may  therefore  consider  that  the  principal  essential  substances 
demanded  by  a  healthy  and  robust  plant  life,  are  the  following  : 

FIRST. — Oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon  and  nitrogen,  which  veg- 
etables take  in  and  assimilate  from  the  air,  through  their 
leaves  or  respiratory  organs . 

SECOND. — Phosphorus,  potassium  and  lime,  contained  in  the 
soil  and  absorbed  by  their  roots. 

Commencing  with  the  three  gases  —  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon- 
ic acid,  we  find  that  they  exist  in  abundance,  both  in  the  air  and  in  the 
soil.  A  combination  of  the  two  first  in  the  form  of  rain,  dew, 
springs  or  irrigation,  Burnish,  with  the  carbonic  acid,  the  necessary 


14  MODERN*    HIGH    FARMING. 

elements  to  form  the  carbon-hydrates — glucose,  cellulose,  dextrine 
and  starcli,  or  the  hydro-carbons  —  oils,  fats,  essences  and  resins. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  exists  in  the  atmosphere  in  the  proportion  of 
four  10,000lhs,  and  is  an  union  of  carbon  and  oxygen  formed 
by  combustion,  respiration,  or  fermentation.  All  kinds  of  fuel  con- 
tain large  proportions  of  carbon,  which,  combining  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  in  the  burning  process,  makes  its  escape  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas. 

In  the  course  of  his  experiments  Boussingault  discovered  that 
while  under  the  influence  of  light,  the  leaves  of  plants  absorb  and 
decompose  this  gas,  and  that  in  the  dark  they  evolve  or  give  back  a 
certain  portion  of  it. 

Nitrogen  is  very  generally  supposed  to  be  assimilated  either  as 
nitric  acid  —  a  combination  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
or  as  ammonia  —  a  combination  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  only. 
But  the  question  is  a  most  difficult  and  vexed  one,  which  has 
created  a  vast  amount  of  speculation  and  upon  which  very  few  of  our 
best  authorities  have  yet  been  able  to  agree. 

A  great  many  of  our  readers  will  have  doubtless  seen  performed 
in  their  school-days,  that  interesting  experiment  first  shown  by 
Cavendish  in  1786,  demonstrating  the  formation  of  nitric  acid  from 
the  combination  of  the  oxygen  and  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere,  under 
the  influence  of  the  electric  spark.  The  presence  of  minute  portions 
of  nitric  acid  and  of  nitrates  in  the  rain  water,  snow,  and  hail,  is  easily 
explained  on  the  theory  of  this  important  discovery,  and  any  doubts 
which  may  have  existed  in  some  minds  as  to  the  reality  of  the 
combination,  were  effectually  and  finally  dissipated  when  M.  Cloe"z 
publicly  performed  the  following  experiment  in  the  course  of  a  lec- 
ture delivered  to  the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris,  in  1861.  A  mixture 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases  was  burnt  in  the  presence  of  nitrogen, 
and  about  210  grammes  of  water  resulted  from,  the  explosion, 
which,  upon  evaporation,  was  found  to  contain  3  grammes  of  salt- 
petre. 

Numberless  chemists  have  since  that  time  devoted  their  attention 
to  the  problem  of  fixing  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  in  some  utiliza- 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  15 

ble  and  assimilable  form,  and  many  of  them  lay  claim  to  successes 
which,  although  theoretically  correct  and  practically  realizable  in 
the  laboratory,  have  never  yet  been  able  to  stand  the  test  of  econom- 
ical industrial  application. 

This  great  question  will  eventually  be  satisfactorily  solved,  for 
we  have  already  witnessed  the  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  forma- 
tion of  nitrates  by  the  mere  passage  of  atmospheric  air  through 
such  porous  bodies  as  pumice  stone  and  chalk,  previously  impreg- 
nated with  an  alkaline  solution.  It  is  therefore  highly  probable  that 
the  new  compound  of  nitrogen  will  be  ammoniacal,  commercially 
presented  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  and  that  the  costly  product  now 
used  and  manufactured  from  the  refuse  liquors  of  gas  works,  will 
give  place  to  an  article  of  which  the  price  will  be  comparatively 
nominal  and  the  supply  inexhaustible. 

Until  the  efforts  now  being  made,  however,  in  all  countries,  are 
crowned  with  success,  it  behoves  us  to  carefully  turn  to  account  all 
those  sources  of  nitrogen  actually  at  our  disposal.  That  the  com- 
bination of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  to  form  nitric  acid  actually  goes 
on  in  the  air,  we  have  said  enough  to  prove,  and  that  a  similar 
operation  is  possible  in  the  soil  we  can  just  as  easily  show. 

In  this  case  the  chemical  action  ensues  under  the  influence  of  the 
slow  combustion  of  the  carbonized  or  decaying  matters,  left  behind 
them  by  the  crops,  or  by  the  leaves  which  have  fallen  from  the  trees 
and  been  worked  into  the  ground. 

Now,  were  it  possible  for  us  to  allow  an  exhausted  field  to 
remain  uncultivated  for  a  given  number  of  years,  abandoning  it  to 
that  wild  and  spontaneous  vegetation  and  subsequent  death  and 
decay,  which  would  naturally  take  place;  we  should  discover  that 
the  soil  had  absorbed  such  a  quantity  of  nitrogen,  as  to  permit  of 
our  reaping  large  and  repeated  crops  of  cereals  without  any  artificial 
introduction  of  this  essential  element. 

But,  as  this  course  is  diametrically  opposed  to  all  the  rules 
of  rational  culture,  and  would  in  the  majority  of  cases  be  impracti- 
cable, we  cannot  for  a  moment  entertain  it  as  a  serious  remedy,  and 
must  seek  in  other  directions  that  which  instead  of  necessitating  the 


16  MODERN"   HIGH   FARMING. 

stoppage  of  any  portion  of  our  culture,  will  enable  us  to  vastly 
increase,  if  not  more  than  double  our  yearly  production . 

Having  shown  that  nitrogen  can  only  enter  into  combination  and 
be  fixed  in  the  presence  of  combustion,  no  better  agent  for 
helping  this  process  can  well  be  imagined  than  farm-yard 
manure,  of  which  in  a  subsequent  chapter  we  shall  have  a  great 
deal  to  say. 

Ploughed  into  the  field,  this  decomposed,  rotting,  or  carbonized 
mass  attracts  the  nitrogen  during  the  whole  course  of  its  carboniza- 
tion, and  having  fixed  it,  enables  it  subsequently  to  undergo  the 
various  transformations  which  render  it  assimilable,  and  allow  of  its 
passing  from  the  soil  into  the  plant. 

In  what  form  vegetables  assimilate  the  nitrogen  thus  fixed, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  determine  ;  nor  do  any  of  our  best  authorities 
seem  to  agree  upon  the  issue.  Our  own  opinion,  based  upon  the 
phenomenon  of  nitrification  and  the  constant  formation  of  nitrates 
in  the  soil,  is  that  the  nitrogen  absorbed  into  the  sap  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  oxygen  set  free  by  the  decomposition  of 
carbonic  acid,  and  thus  forms  nitric  acid,  which  penetrates  into  all 
the  tissues. 

It  may  be  urged  against  us  that  plants  are  organs  rather  of  re- 
duction than  of  oxidation,  and  that  the  nitric  acid  itself  would  — 
undergoing  a  decomposition  similar  to  that  of  carbonic  acid  and 
water  —  be  transformed  into  ammonia  by  the  hydrogen  then  being 
produced  ;  but  our  own  researches  have  been  sufficiently  elaborate 
to  justify  us  in  the  meantime  in  maintaining  our  ground. 

That  nitrogen  is  assimilable  in  its  free  and  natural  state,  we  posi- 
tively refuse  to  admit,  and,  although  it  forms  four-fifths  of  the  vol- 
ume of  atmospheric  air,  and  exists  in  appreciable  quantities  in  the 
soil,  only  an  insignificant  portion  would,  in  the  absence  of  all  com- 
bustion, be  available  for  the  nourishment  of  the  plants. 

Presuming,  therefore,  that  carbonized  materials  of  any  kind  are 
not  sufficiently  abundant  to  well  cover  the  ground  after  each  crop 
—  and  this  is  generally  the  case — we  have  to  bear  in  mind  that 
we  continually  take  away  large  quantities  of  nitrogen,  which 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  17 

unaided  nature  does  not  with  sufficient  rapidity  replace.  It  is 
consequently  necessary  to  artificially  introduce  it  into  the  soil  in 
some  cheap,  efficacious  and  soluble  form,  if  we  desire  the  equilibrium 
to  be  undisturbed,  since  its  presence  determines  the  dearth  or 
abundance  in  the  plants  of  nitrogenous  carbon-hydrates  or  proteids, 
such  as  legumine  or  vegetable  caseine  in  the  leguminous  species, 
gluten  in  the  cereals,  and  nicotine  in  tobacco. 

As  at  a  later  stage  of  this  work  we  shall  come  back  to  this 
question  under  the  heading  of  Manures,  we  may  for  the  present  leave 
the  gaseous  elements  and  pass  on  to  those  of  a  mineral  nature,  which 
play  a  no  less  important  part  in  the  vegetable  economy. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

PHOSPHATES DISCOVERY   OF   THEIR    ACTIVE     PRINCIPLE  USE 

OF    BONE    MANURE DISCOVERY    OF    MINERAL    PHOSPHATES 

—  HOW    THEY    OCCUR    IN    NATURE THEIR    FORM    IN   THE 

SOIL HOW  THEY   ARE  MADE   SOLUBLE HOW  THEY  ARE 

ASSIMILATED     BY     PLANTS MIGRATIONS      OF      PHOSPHORUS 

THE     NECESSITY    FOR    ARTIFICIALLY   INTRODUCING     PHOS- 
PHORIC ACID  AS  MANURE. 

Of  the  absolute  necessity  for  the  presence  in  the  soil  of  such  min- 
erals as  phosphorus,  potassium  and  lime,  we  have  the  most  undeni- 
able proofs ;  for  it  has  been  clearly  shown  that  vegetables,  though 
abundantly  supplied  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen, 
remained  puny  and  devoid  of  vigor  if  deprived  of  mineral  salts. 

The  form  in  which  phosphorus  is  assimilated  is  that  of  phosphate 
— produced,  first  by  the  action  of  oxygen  as  phosphoric  acid,  and  then 
by  the  combination  of  this  acid  with  various  bases,  the  principal  of 
which  is  lime.  Enormous  deposits  of  phosphate  of  lime  have  been 
and  doubtless  will  continue  to  be  discovered  in  every  quarter  of  the 
globe;  and  as,  besides  being  an  essential  to  plant  life, it  is  the  princi- 
pal constituent  of  bones,  we  may  assume  that,  if  by  some  extraordi- 
nary phenomenon  its  source  were  suddenly  cut  oft'  or  exhausted,  all 
vegetable  and  animal  life  would  come  to  an  end. 

So  far  back  as  the  year  1698  a  celebrated  French  engineer — Van- 
ban — writing  in  the  Dime  Royal,  says  : 

"We  have  for  a  long  time  past  been  universally  complaining  of 
the  falling  off  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  our  crops ;  our 
farms  are  no  longer  giving  us  the  returns  we  were  accustomed  to ; 


MODERN  HIGH   FARMING.  19 

yet  few  persons  are  taking  the  pains  to  examine  into  the  causes  of 
this  diminution,  which  will  become  more  and  more  formidable  un- 
less proper  remedies  are  discovered  and  applied." 

Despite  this  warning  note,  it  was  not  until  after  the  commence 
ment  of  the  present  century  that  the  English  farmers  began  to  use 
crushed  bones  as  a  manure,  and  even  then  they  did  so  in  blind  ig- 
norance of  the  principles  to  which  they  owed  their  virtues,  as  is 
clearly  shown  by  an  article  published  by  one  of  the  scientific  papers 
of  that  day  — 1830  —  in  which  the  writer  says  : 

"We  need  take  into  no  account  the  earthy  matters  or  phosphate 
of  lime  contained  in  the  bones,  because,  as  it  is  indestructible  and 
insoluble  it  cannot  serve  as  a  manure,  even  though  it  is  placed  in  a 
damp  soil  with  a  combination  of  circumstances  analytically  stronger 
than  any  of  the  processes  known  to  organic  chemistry." 

A  subsequent  writer  upon  the  same  subject  declares  that  "bones, 
after  having  undergone  a  certain  process  of  natural  fermentation, 
contain  no  more  than  two  per  cent,  of  gelatine,  and  as  they  derive 
their  fertilizing  power  from  this  substance  only,  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  having  no  value  as  manure." 

That  such  opinions  as  these  should  have  prevailed  only  fifty  years 
ago  seems  to  us  all  the  more  preposterous,  because  of  the  gigantic 
strides  which  we  have  made  since  then,  and  because  of  the  singular 
fact,  that  even  the  Chinese  were  better  informed  than  our  grand- 
fathers, inasmuch  as  they  knew  that  the  fertilizer  was  a  mineral 
principle,  and  for  many  centuries  have  used  burnt  bones  as  manures. 

Despite  the  unflagging  researches  of  the  best  men  of  the  time,  it 
was  not  until  the  year  1843,  that  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  after  an 
exhaustive  series  of  experiments  upon  the  soil,  with  both  fresh  and 
degelatiuized  bones,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  owed  their 
value,  not  to  gelatine  or  fatty  matters,  but  to  their  large  percentage  of 
phosphoric  acid !  The  spark  thus  emitted  soon  spread  into  a  flame, 
and  a  conclusive  experiment  shortly  after  published  by  the  illus- 
trious Boussingault,  set  all  uncertainty  at  rest  forever. 

Numerous  species  of  vegetables  were  planted  in  a  soil  rich  in  as 
similable  nitrogen,  and  absolutely  devoid  of  any  trace  of  phosphoric 


20  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

acid.  No  development  of  these  plants  took  place,  until  he  had  made  the 
addition  of  phosphate  of  lime,  when  their  growth  became  flourishing ! !  ! 

Meanwhile  large  workable  deposits  of  mineral  phosphates  were 
already  known  to  exist,  they  having  been  simultaneously  discovered 
in  their  respective  countries,  by  Buckland  in  England,  and  Berthier 
in  France  ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  lecture  delivered  to  the  British  As- 
sociation in  1845,  Professor  Henslow,  describing  the  Suffolk  copro- 
lites,  suggested  the  immense  value  of  their  application  to  agriculture. 

From  this  time  may  be  dated  the  commencement  of  phosphate 
mining,  and  it  is  certainly  marvelous  to  contemplate,  not  only  the 
rapidity  with  which  fresh  deposits  have  been  everywhere  discovered 
and  opened  up  ;  not  only  the  millions  of  tons  yearly  raised  to  sup- 
ply a  never-failing  demand,  but  also  the  fabulous  amount  of  capital 
and  gigantic  numbers  of  workmen  constantly  and  remuneratively 
employed  in  the  production. 

Phosphates  of  lime  have  been  found  in  rocks  of  all  ages,  and  of 
nearly  every  texture  ;  sometimes  pure  ;  sometimes  in  different 
forms  of  chemical  combination  ;  in  mineral  fissure  veins  ;  in  pock- 
ets, or  filled-up  cavities  ;  in  stratified  beds  or  layers,  and  in  intimate 
connection  with  the  fossil  remains  and  other  phosphatic  matter,  de- 
posited by  the  ancient  seas.  They  are,  however,  chiefly  found  as: 

APATITES,  or  Crystalline  Phosphates,  occurring  in  the  gneissic 
rocks  of  the  Laurentian  age  in  North  America  and  Norway, 
and  in  the  Silurian  rocks  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

COPROLITES,  or  Fossilized  Nodules,  occurring  in  the  green  sand- 
stone, or  cretaceous  rocks  of  England,  France,  Belgium  and 
Russia.  * 

PHOSPHORITES  or  Amorphous  Rock  Phosphates,  occurring  in 
the  Tertiary  stratas— principally  in  France,  Germany,  and 
America  (South  Carolina). 

Their  commercial  value  is  entirely  based  upon  their  strength  in  tri- 
calcic  phosphate,  which  ranges  in  some  regions  and  for  some  mar- 
kets, from  30  per  cent,  up  to  85  per  cent. 

All  those  who  are  familiar  with  soil  analysis  will  agree  that,  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  the  phosphates  therein  are  found  to  exist  as 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  21 

phosphates  of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  or  alumina  —  insoluble  in  carbonic 
acid,  but  readily  decomposed  by  the  alkaline  carbonates.  We  can 
therefore  admit  that,  under  the  influence  of  a  well-limed  soil,  or 
when  acted  upon  by  the  carbonates  resulting  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  felspar  rocks,  these  insoluble  phosphates  should  yield 
their  phosphoric  acid,  to  be  taken  up  in  solution  by  water  ;  either 
pure  or  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  and  that  in  this  form  they  should 
be  absorbed  with  the  water  by  the  vegetable  roots. 

In  the  springtime,  phosphates  are  found  in  noteworthy  quantities 
in  young  organs  of  plants,  especially  in  the  leaves,  but  the  quantity 
gradually  diminishes  as  the  plant  approaches  maturity,  until  when 
the  blossoms  appear,  the  phosphates  are  found  to  have  entirely  quit- 
ted the  leaves  and  accumulated  in  the  seeds.  This  is  the  cause  of 
that  peculiar  effect,  which  has  long  puzzled  farmers,  that  fodder  cut 
and  brought  in  after  the  period  of  maturity,  proves  to  be  much  less 
nourishing  to  the  cattle  than  that  cut  before  this  period  has  arrived. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  every  instance,  this  displacement  of  the 
phosphates  is  accompanied  by  an  equal  displacement  of  the  nitrogen, 
and  all  those  who  have  made  successive  analyses  of  grains  in  different 
stages  of  maturity,  must  have  been  struck  by  the  regular  parallel  man- 
ner in  which  the  quantities  of  both  have  progressively  augmented. 

Mr.  Corenwinder,  in  his  work  upon  the  migrations  of  phosphorus 
in  vegetables,  alluding  to  this  phenomenon  remarks  : 

"It  has  long  been  known  that  young  buds  are  rich  ia  nitrogenous 
matters,  which  are  always  accompanied  by  a  relatively  considerable 
portion  of  phosphorus,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  two  elements 
are  united  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  according  to  some  mode  of 
combination  which  is  yet  a  mystery. " 

And  Mr.  Boussingault,  writing  upon  the  same  subject,  says : 

"We  perceive  a  certain  constant  relation  between  the  proportions 
of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  contained  in  foods,  those  being  rich- 
est in  the  latter  element  which  contain  most  nitrogen.  This  would 
appear  to  indicate  that  in  the  vegetable  organization  phosphates 
particularly  belong  to  the  nitrogenous  principles,  and  that  they  fol 
low  the  latter  into  the  organization  of  animals." 


22  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Now  we  have  seen  that  nitrogen  can,  though  iu  a  very  small 
degree,  be  really  imparted  to  plants  and  to  the  soil  from  the  atmos- 
phere; and  that  after  having  assisted,  through  the  plant,  in  forming 
the  muscular  tissues  of  the  various  animals,  it  is  apt  to  reassume  its 
aerial  character  and  become  at  liberty  to  form  fresh  combinations 
either  as  ammonia  or  nitric  acid.  The  actual  loss,  therefore,  of  this 
element  is  comparatively  small;  but  with  the  phosphorus  the  case  is 
a  very  different  one,  since  it  always  maintains  certain  fixed  combi- 
nations, and  is  taken  away  from  and  irrecoverably  lost  to  the  soil  in 
immense  quantities  with  every  crop. 

Hence  the  same  question  arises  here  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
arose  in  the  case  of  the  nitrogen,  and  none  are  more  important  or 
more  worthy  of  profound  consideration  : 

' '  HOW  SHALL  WE  RESTORE  TO  THE  GROUND  THOSE  ELEMENTS 
WHICH  WE  YEARLY  TAKE  AWAY  FROM  IT  ?" 

It  will  be  our  duty,  later  on,  to  point  out  the  solution  which 
science  has  furnished  to  this  problem,  and  how  the  remedies  it  pre- 
scribes are  to  be  employed  with  economy  and  profit. 


UK 
•' 


CHAPTER  V. 

POTASH  I     ITS   ACTION    ON    THE    SOIL IS    IT   ESSENTIAL   TO   PLANT 

LIFE  ? KESULTS   OF   DIRECT  EXPERIMENTS ITS  NECES- 
SITY  MADE   CLEAR SOURCES   OF   ITS   SUPPLY LIME 

THE   LIMING   OF    SOILS ITS    CHEMICAL  ACTION ITS  AB- 
SORBING   POWERS ITS    ACTION    ON   SULPHUROUS  ORES 

ITS   ACTION    ON   IRON ALUMINA  AND   PHOSPHORIC   ACID   IN 

THE    SOIL NECESSITY   FOR   ITS  ABUNDANT   USE. 

The  ashes  of  all  plants,  when  submitted  to  analysis,  are  found  to 
contain  potash  in  noticeable  proportion,  and  hence  that  substance  is 
presumed  to  be  a  very  active  and  essential  fertilizing  agent,  although 
its  precise  influence  in  the  process  of  development  is  not  rig- 
orously known. 

It  has  been  suggested  that,  once  in  the  soil,  it  enters  into  a  solu- 
ble combination  with  the  phosphoric  acid  to  form  potassic  phos- 
phate, and  in  that  shape  becomes  absorbed  by  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  the  basic  salt,  however,  remaining  deposited  in  the  various 
organisms  after  the  evaporation  of  the  water. 

The  doubts  which  have  been  expressed  by  many  authorities  as  to 
the  utility  of  introducing  potash  into  the  soil  as  an  active  artificial 
manure,  induced  Monsieur  George  Ville,  when  experimenting  at 
Vincennes,  to  devote  his  particular  attention  to  this  disputed  point, 
and  although  it  cannot  be  said  that  his  researches  have  added  very 
much  to  our  information  from  a  chemical  point  of  view,  the  results 
he  obtained  were  of  a  sufficiently  definite  nature  to  warrant  us  in  be 
lieving  that  the  growth  of  plants  would  be  unhealthy,  if  completely 
deprived  of  potash. 


24  MODERN   HIGH   FARMIHG. 

On  the  one  half  of  a  completely  exhausted  field,  plentifully  man- 
ured with  nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  fertilizers,  he  caused  to  be 
sown  a  sufficiency  of  the  finest  quality  grain.  This  sowing  produced 
a  crop  of  extreme  poverty. 

On  the  other  half  of  the  same  field  to  which  the  same  manure 
had  been  applied,  but  with  the  addition  of  potash,  he  sowed  exactly 
the  same  quantity  and  quality  of  grain,  and  produced  a  crop  of  mag- 
nificent appearance  and  extreme  abundance. 

Exactly  similar  results  have  attended  many  experiments  of  our 
own  upon  plants  of  the  leguminous  species,  and  it  therefore  seems 
evident  that  due  weight  must  be  attached  to  the  opinion  of  those 
who  affirm  that  putting  back  potash  into  the  soil,  is  quite  as  necessary 
in  some  cases  as  the  addition  in  others  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

We  must  not  overlook  that  we  have  not  yet  penetrated  into  all 
the  mysteries  of  plant  life  and  plant  feeding  ;  that  many  things  daily 
occur  which  overthrow  or  considerably  shake  the  conclusions  we  had 
already  formed  and  the  theories  we  had  built  upon  them  ;  also  that 
results  obtained  in  some  regions  and  by  some  agencies  are  often  dia- 
metrically opposed  in  other  places,  although  the  surroundings  appear 
to  be  the  same. 

We  should,  therefore,  carefully  guard  ourselves  against  the  adop- 
tion of  those  extreme  views  which  have  prompted  some  excellent 
chemists  to  teach  us  that  potash  has  no  merits  as  a  manure,  and 
which  have  induced  others  to  assert  that  no  perfect  crops  can  be  pro- 
duced without  its  active  intervention. 

Joining  our  own  experiences  to  those  of  many  important  agricul- 
turists in  France  and  England,  with  whom  we  have  corresponded 
on  the  subject,  we  are  content  to  endorse  the  opinions  of  George 
Ville  ;  and  to  look  upon  the  use  of  potassic  salts  as  highly  beneficial, 
if  not  indispensable. 

The  principal  commercial  sources  of  our  potash  are  the  mines  of 
Stassfiirt,  Germany,  where  in  the  various  forms  of  sylvine,  ktiinit, 
and  carnallite,  it  was  discovered  in  1858  in  proximity  to  the  beds  of 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt).  We  generally  meet  with  it  as  a 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  25 

tolerably  pure  muriate  or  chloride,  and  in  this  form  recommend  its 
addition  to  manures,  or  direct  introduction  into  the  soil. 

If  the  utility  and  action  of  potash  are  sometimes  contested,  the 
same  cannot  be  said  of  lime,  than  which  few  elements  in  agriculture 
play  a  more  important  part,  or  one  that  is  better  understood. 

The  limiug  of  soils  has  been  a  common  practice  in  all  countries 
from  the  very  earliest  times  ;  but  it  was  presumably  not  until  the 
seventeenth  century  that  the  use  of  burnt  lime  —  now  universally 
recommended — was  introduced.  It  is  employed  in  quantities  vary- 
ing with  the  composition  and  the  requirements  of  a  soil,  from  twenty 
tons  per  acre  into  those  which  are  heavy,  compact,  and  laden  with 
moisture,  to  five  tons  per  acre  into  those  which  are  light  and  of  a 
dryer  nature. 

That  its  scope  of  usefulness  cannot  be  by  any  means  guaged  by 
the  relatively  small  proportion  found  by  analysis  to  exist  in  the 
plants,  we  must  all  agree,  and  we  have  often  asked  ourselves  whether 
in  point  of  fact,  the  presence  of  this  element  in  plant  organisms  is 
directly  connected  with  their  nourishment  and  growth,  or  whether  it 
is  to  be  explained  by  the  mere  evaporation  of  the  water  by  which  it 
was  conducted  into  the  tissues  and  there  deposited  ? 

However  this  may  be,  the  quantity  absorbed  from  is  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  quantity  introduced  into  the  soil,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  figures. 

Quantity  of  Lime  absorbed  per  acre  by  the  undermentioned 
Cultivated  Plants  : 


Potatoes, 

71bs. 


Wheat, 
20  Ibs. 


Beetroots, 
18  Ibs. 


Clover, 
70  Ibs. 


And  it  is  therefore  not  in  this  direction  that  we  have  to  seek  for  its 
principal  chemical  action. 

In  certain  regions  pyrites,  or  sulphurous  ores,  are  disseminated 
throughout  the  soils  and  underlying  strata,  sometimes  in  large  but 
generally  in  minute  quantities.  The  action  of  heat  upon  these  sul- 
phur-bearing substances  generates  sulphurous  vapors,  and  these  on 
meeting  the  elements  undergoing  the  process  of  nitrification —  already 


26  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

ready  described —  would  form  sulphuric  acid,  which,  combining  with 
the  oxides  in  the  soil  to  form  sulphate  of  iron,  would  immediately 
render  cultivation  or  vegetable  growth  impossible. 

The  counteracting  or  preventive  part  here  played  by  lime  is  at 
once  manifest,  since  by  its  ready  absorption  of  the  acid  it  would  in- 
terfere with  any  other  combination  and  become,  itself,  more  soluble 
and  efficacious  by  its  transformation  into  gypsum. 

Apart  from  such  special  cases  as  these,  the  virtues  of  lime  must  be 
attributed  to  its  caustic  action  upon  all  organic  remains. 

Being  rich  in  unavailable  because  insoluble  forms  of  nitrogen,  these 
are  rapidly  decomposed,  and  by  coming  in  contact  with  other  agents 
are  submitted  to  the  nitrification  process  and  rendered  assimilable? 
and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  assertion  that  to  spread  lime  upon  a 
newly  plowed  cultivated  field  is  equal  to  the  application  of  a  good 
dose  of  soluble  nitrogenous  fertilizer. 

As  we  shall  presently  show,  its  intimate  admixture  in  a  finely 
powdered  state  with  all  kinds  of  clayey  soils  is  invaluably  diminish- 
ing as  it  does  their  plasticity  and  augmenting  their  permeability  to 
the  action  of  air  and  water. 

We  have  explained  that  phosphoric  acid  invariably  exists  in  the 
soil  in  combination  with  peroxide  of  iron  or  alumina  ;  these  two 
agents  must  therefore  exercise  an  immediate  transforming  action 
upon  the  phosphate  of  lime  which  is  introduced  in  both  natural  and 
artificial  manures. 

This  transformation  can  be  demonstrated  by  adding  either  per- 
oxide of  iron  or  alumina,  or  both,  to  a  solution  of  phosphates  in 
water  charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas  (ordinary  seltzer  water  at 
high  pressure),  when  in  a  very  short  time  all  the  phosphoric  acid 
will  have  disappeared  from  the  solution,  and  be  found  in  the  deposit 
as  phosphate  of  peroxide  of  iron. 

Now,  if  one  gramme  of  this  ferric  phosphate  be  put  into  water 
with  two  or  three  grammes  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  be  allowed, 
with  frequent  shakings,  to  stand  for  forty  eight  hours —  the  mixture 
at  the  end  of  that  time  being  poured  into  an  excess  of  seltzer  water  — 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  27 

the  solution  will  be  found  upon  analysis  to  contain  about  six  milli- 
grammes of  phosphoric  acid. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  are  too  clear  to  permit  of  our 
doubting  that  the  lime  put  into  the  soil  becomes  carbonate  by  its 
absorption  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  that  in  this  form  it  is 
chiefly  instrumental  in  decomposing  the  phosphates  of  iron  and 
alumina. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  furnish  the  soil  with  a  considerable 
excess  of  lime,  since  if  the  free  peroxides  maintain  the  ascendant, 
no  effect  will  follow  the  application  of  the  phosphates,  from  the 
simple  fact  that  their  dissolution  cannot  take  place. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HOW      SOILS     LOSE     THEIR     NITROGEN TABLE     OF     PROPORTIONS 

NECESSITY     OF     SOIL    ANALYSIS  TABLE     OF     PHYSICAL 

ELEMENTS    AND     CHEMICAL    CONSTITUENTS. 

We  have  now  reviewed  the  nature  of  the  principal  elements 
essential  to  vegetation,  and  have  described  the  parts  they  severally 
play  and  the  places  they  probably  occupy  in  the  organisms  of  plants. 
While  admitting  that,  in  some  insignificant  instances,  we  are  still 
unable  to  completely  unravel  the  mysteries  connected  with  vegeta- 
ble inner  organisms,  we  may  claim  to  be  no  worse  off  in  this  respect 
than  the  science  of  Pathology,  to  whose  professors  many  secrets  re- 
lating to  the  blood  have  still  to  be  revealed.  We  have  nevertheless 
been  able  to  place  on  record  a  series  of  facts  which  support  our  theo- 
ries and  confirm  our  deductions  ;  and  facts,  as  we  are  all  aware, are 
"very  stubborn  things." 

Thus,  with  man,  it  is  not  enough  to  give  him  food  :  his  diet  must 
contain  a  mixture  of  substances,  the  absorption  of  which  is  the  con- 
dition of  his  existence,  and  whose  composition  is  found  to  be  iden- 
tical with  the  materials  constituting  his  bodily  frame  and  tissues. 

In  plants  the  same  phenomenon  presents  itself  :  deprived  of  cer- 
tain elements  they  pine,  droop,  and  die  ;  supplied  with  them  they 
nourish  and  are  vigorous  ;  and,  upon  analyzing  their  organism,  we 
prove  them  to  contain  an  abundance  of  the  very  elements  without 
which  they  were  unable  to  exist. 

It  will  be  interesting  here  to  examine  some  figures  showing 
us  in  what  proportion  the  soil  is  regularly  deprived  by  the  different 
crops  of  its  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 


MODERN"   HIGH   FARMING.  29 

Table  showing  the  approximate  quantity  by  weight  in  POUNDS  of  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  taken  from  the  soil  ly 
every  TEN  TONS  of  the  following  crops  : 
GRAINS  AND  SEEDS. 


NITROGEN.               PHOSPHORIC  ACID. 

POTASH. 

Wheat  

...  520  Ibs  

...211  Jbs  

138  Ibs. 

Rye  

...  420        

...211         

138 

Barley  

...385        

...180        

122 

Oats  

...490        

.  .  .  133         

91J4 

Corn  

...405         

...135         

81^ 

Colza  

...785        

..415         

220 

Linseed  

...810        

...320         

257 

Hemp  , 

....  CGO         

...437        

242 

Poppy  

...650         

...420         

184 

Peas  

....850        

...221         

260 

Vetches  

...  1010         

...202         

160 

Horse  Beans  .... 

....990        

...297         

310 

Lentils  

.    ..900         

...135         

205 

Lnpine  

....1380        

...221         

293 

FODDERS. 

Meadow  Hay  

....335         

...96         

410 

White  Clover  

....605         

...220        

265 

Red           "     .... 

....532        

...145        

495 

Luzerne  

....580        

...132         

383 

Vetche  Hay.. 

...595        

...245         

780 

STRAWS  AND 

STALKS. 

Wheat  Straw  

....     86         

...62         

127 

Rye           "     

C2 

.  ..  46         

197 

Barley       "     

....12-3         

...46         

240 

Oats          "     

.  .  .  .     94         

.  .  .  52         

197 

Corn          "     

...125         

...98         

410 

Pea            "     

....265         

...98         

271 

Horse  Beans  

....410         

...120         

655 

Colza        "    

....     79^     

...65         

250 

Linseed  Stalks.. 

...192         

...116         

300 

Hemp  

,...207         

...135         

140 

FLOWERS  AND 

LEAVES. 

Hop's  Cones  

...2235         

...237        

568 

Tobacco  Leaves., 

,...1203         

...247         

1368 

ROOTS 

Beets  

...     46         

...31         

98 

Potatoes  

.  .  .  .     84        

...46         

142J4 

Turnips  

...     52         

...35         

82 

Carrots  

..     55 

..35        

84 

30  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

No  better  arguments  can  possibly  be  adduced  in  favor  of  soil  re- 
constitution,  than  the  figures  here  given  ;  for  they  seem  to  us  to  be 
a  direct  appeal  from  the  plants  themselves,  for  the  administration  of 
that  food  without  which  they  must  gradually  starve  and  finally  dis- 
appear. 

We  have,  therefore,  to  study  with  increased  earnestness  that 
problem  which  has  already  been  so  long  occupying  the  minds  of 
agricultural  scientists;  the  question  of  "how  we  are  to  arrest  the 
marked  falling  off  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  our  crops,  by  the 
impoverishment  and  gradual  exhaustion  of  our  soils ;  and  how, 
where,  and  when  we  are  to  apply  those  elements  of  fresh  vigor  and 
life,  which  the  discoveries  of  chemistry  have  placed  at  our  command. 
When  a  man  who  has  hitherto  never  been  sick,  finds  that  his  health 
is  beginning  to  fail,  he,  if  possessed  of  common  sense,  calls  in  his 
doctor,  who  after  careful  diagnosis  discovers  the  root  of  the  evil  and 
prescribes  a  remedy.  Is  it  not  evident  that  if  he  would  know  what 
to  do  for  his  soils  to  make  them  productive  or  amenable  to  culture, 
or  to  restore  them  to  their  past  state  of  fertility,  the  farmer  should 
first  of  all  be  made  acquainted  with  their  composition  —  their  physi- 
cal and  chemical  properties? 

We  have  ever  advocated  the  theory  exposed  at  the  commence- 
ment of  this  work,  that  no  successful  results  can  attend  any  attempts 
at  scientific  culture,  if  such  attempts  are  made  in  ignorance  of  the 
elements  we  seek  to  improve  ;  and  for  this  reason  we  maintain 
that  the  only  certain  guide  to  successful  cultivation,  is  the  complete 
chemical  analysis  of  the  soil,  joined  to  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  cli- 
matological  and  other  surrounding  conditions.  With  these  at  his  com- 
mand, the  experienced  chemist  can  throw  the  broad  light  of  day  on 
all  the  points  which  have  been  hitherto  obscure,  and  can  suggest 
methods  of  practical  treatment,  at  once  productive  of  a  radical 
amelioration. 

It  has  been  and  still  is  urged  in  some  quarters,  that  no  informa- 
tion procured  in  the  laboratory, can  be  so  perfect  as  that  acquired  by 
constant  observation  on  the  ground,  and  by  continuous  practical 
manipulation  of  the  soil  ! 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  31 

We  reply  to  this  that,  while  quite  prepared  to  accede  in  the  very 
fullest  manner  to  all  the  claims  of  long  practice,  and  while  admitting 
that  some  crops  may  be  annually  produced,  it  has  frequently 
occurred  in  our  experience  that  the  addition  of  some  essential  ele- 
ment to  the  soil,  discovered  by  chemical  investigation  to  exist  there  in 
insufficient  quantity,  has  been  the  means  of  immediately  doubling  the 
quantity  previously  produced  of  those  very  crops  and  greatly  height- 
ening their  quality. 

Thus,  for  example,  it  is  very  desirable  to  know  how  much  lime  a 
soil  contains,  since  the  different  combinations  which  it  facili- 
tates or  into  which  it  enters,  produce  sweet,  sound  and  nutritious 
green  crops,  full  eared  grain,  and  fine  strong  straws.  If  a  soil  con- 
tain too  little  or  no  lime,  none  of  these  advantages  can  accrue,  and 
yet  the  farmer  may  have  expended  considerable  sums  in  the  purchase 
of  other  fertilizers,  and  will  not  comprehend  their  inefficiency  until 
his  attention  is  directly  called  to  the  absence  of  lime. 

Again,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  proportion  of  combustible  or 
organic  matter  contained  in  a  soil,  since  upon  their  abundant  pres- 
ence depends  the  fixation  of  a  greater  or  lesser  quantity  of  nitrogen. 

And  yet  again,  there  may  be  present  some  of  those  injurious  com- 
pounds of  iron  or  salt  already  described,  or  an  excess  of  clay  or  of 
sand,  or  too  much  water,  etc. 

The  whole  of  these  cases,  a1  though  of  great  importance,  are  mere- 
ly elementary;  for  we  must  remember  that  in  addition  to  them 
we  require  to  know  how  much  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  phosphoric  acid, 
potash,  and  many  other  elements  a  soil  contains  before  we  can  form 
any  just  appreciation  of  its  value. 

Before  proceeding  to  investigate  the  chemical  constituents  of  a 
soil,  it  is,  as  we  have  seen,  necessary  to  rigorously  examine  its 
physical  properties,  they  being  the  real  basis  upon  which  everything 
subsequently  depends. 

No  man  in  his  right  senses  would  attempt  to  build  a  house  on 
moving  sands,  and  just  in  the  same  way  it  would  be  futile  to  seek 
to  introduce  chemical  elements  into  a  soil,  if  it  were  found  to  be 
physically  incompatible  with  vegetation  and  high-class  culture. 


32  MODERH   HIGH   FARMING. 

To  ascertain  the  true  physical  and  chemical  condition  of  a  soil, 
the  following  complete  investigation  must  be  undertaken  : 

Determination  of  its  density  or  weight  as  compared  with  the 

weight  of  water. 

Determination  of  its  proportions  of  sand. 

clay, 
gravel. 

"     powers  of  absorbing  water. 
"  "  "     holding  water. 

"     drying  capacity. 
"  "     powers  of  absorbing  solar  heat. 

These  operations  having  been  satisfactorily  performed,  and  the 
physical  properties  thus  accurately  known,  the  study  of  its  value 
for  plant  alimentation  may  be  proceeded  with  in  the  following  order  : 

Quantitative  determination  of  its  percentage  of  sulphuric  acid . 

"  "  "  "  nitric  acid. 

"  "  phosphoric  acid. 

"  "  "  nitrogen. 

"  "  "  "  lime. 

"  "  "  chlorine. 

"  "  "  "  carbonic  acid 

"  "  potash. 

"  "  "  "  soda. 

"  *'  peroxide  of  iron. 

"  "  "  alumina. 

"  "  "  "  oxide  of  manganese 

"  "  "  "  magnesia. 

"  "  "  "  soluble  silicates. 

Airsifid  with  the  results  of  this  exhaustive  investigation,  we  can 
dt  once  find  out  how  the  soil  may  with  rapidity  and  economy  be 
brought  to  attain  the  highest  degree  of  fertility. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PHYSICALLY    PERFECT   SOILS STRONG  AND   LIGHT   SOILS HOW 

TO  AMEND   CLAYEY  LAND  CLAY   BURNING TREATMENT 

OF   SANDY    SOILS GREEN    CROPS  AS  MANURE REMARKS 

ON     DISINTEGRATION "  FAIRY     RINGS  "  • THEIR     EXIS- 
TENCE  EXPLAINED HOW   TO   KEEP  PACE   WITH  THE   TIMES. 

The  most  favorable  physical  conditions  of  a  fertile  soil  are  found 
to  exist  in  a  nearly  equal  mixture  of  sand  and  clay.  When  it  con- 
tains less  than  thirty  per  cent.,  or  about  one-third  of  sand,  it  should 
cease  to  be  classed  among  those  fit  for  agricultural  purposes,  and, 
according  to  its  composition,  be  turned  to  account  in  other  directions. 
The  two  substances  —  clay  and  sand  —  are  destined  by  nature  to  play 
respective  parts,  which  may  be  thus  described  :  the  clay  to  store  up 
and  hold  together  those  substances  essential  for  plant  food  ;  the  sand 
to  serve  as  a  ventilator  or  conductor  of  air  and  water. 

As  the  defects  of  physically  well-constituted  lands  may  be  easily 
discovered  and  dealt  with  by  chemical  analysis,  our  present  pur- 
pose will  be  served  if  we  devote  our  attention  to  those  of  a  less 
happy  nature,  which,  for  convenience,  we  shall  distinguish  as  strong 
or  clayey,  and  light  or  sandy  soils ;  the  former  being  heavy,  tena- 
cious, plastic,  and  retentive  of  moisture  ;  the  latter  porous  and 
incapable  of  holding  water.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  in 
some  regions  both  these  qualities  are  alternately  met  with  in  consid- 
erable abundance,  extending  over  very  large  areas ;  and  in  such 
cases  a  judicious  mixture  is  the  natural  remedy  which  suggests  it- 
self. In  other  regions  we  meet  with  vast  tracts  of  land  wholly 


34  MODERN  HIGH   FARMING. 

composed  of  clay  or  entirely  sandy,  and  here  it  is  that  our  ingenuity 
must  be  brought  to  bear. 

Commencing  on  a  clayey  soil  with  the  removal  of  all  excess  of 
water,  by  a  system  of  surface  or  substrata  drainage,  we  must  look 
around  us  for  those  substances  which,  by  their  addition,  will  com- 
municate to  the  clay  the  necessary  degree  of  porosity. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  explained  that  many  surface  soils 
have  no  natural  connection  with  the  rocks  which  underlie  them  ; 
that  they  may  have  been  carried  to  their  present  position,  and  de- 
posited by  water  arriving  from  various  distances,  and  that  conse- 
quently they  may  cover  strata  of  an  entirely  different  composition 
to  their  own.  An  examination  of  this  point,  being  very  easily  made, 
should  never  be  neglected,  because,  if  beneath  the  overlying  clays 
we  come  upon  beds  of  marls,  limestones,  or  sand,  we  need  seek  no 
further  for  what  is  necessary  to  remedy  the  defects  under  consider- 
ation. Presuming,  however,  the  non-existence  of  any  underground 
source  of  improvement,  recourse  must  be  had  to  outside  means  : 
the  application  of  cinders,  furnace  refuse,  coal  dust,  or  ashes,  the 
ashes  of  all  kinds  of  burnt  vegetable  refuse;  old  and  discarded 
building  materials,  large  quantities  of  lime,  chalk,  or  marls ;  the 
whole  of  which  will  have  the  desired  effect. 

In  some  rare  cases  we  have  heard  it  objected  that  none  of  the 
bodies  we  have  enumerated  could  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities, 
near  enough  at  hand  to  admit  of  their  employment  ;  and  that  their 
transport  from  long  distances  is  rendered  impossible  by  the  heavy 
and  prohibitive  charges  for  freight.  Although  such  objections  must 
soon  disappear  before  the  rapid  growth  of  cheaper  communications, 
we  cannot  afford  to  overlook  them,  but,  bearing  in  mind  that  "labor 
omnia  mncit"  must  seek  and  find  in  the  clay  itself  a  solution  to  the 
difficulty. 

First  roughly  shaped  into  balls  or  bricks  and  allowed  to  dry 
in  the  sun,  it  should  be  burnt  in  small  piles  made  up  of  alternate 
layers  of  clay,  wood,  coal  dust,  or  any  other  cheap  and  readily  avail- 
able combustible  material.  When  the  burning  process,  which  gen- 
erally lasts  some  days,  is  terminated,  the  bricks  or  balls  must  be 


MODERN    HIGH 

broken  up  as  finely  as  possible,  arid,  together  with  the  ashes  of  the 
combustibles,  plowed  in  a  wholesale  manner  —  deeply  and  thorough- 
ly —  into  the  field. 

Our  object  in  burning  the  clay  is  to  make  it  undergo  a  radical 
chemical  transformation,  in  the  course  of  which  it  loses  its  water  of 
combination  and  its  power  of  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture. 

If,  on  the  one  hand,  an  excess  of  clay  renders  our  agricultural 
operations  so  arduous,  we  find  on  the  other  that  an  excess  of  sand  in 
the  soil,  and  a  consequent  lack  of  clay,  makes  them  impossible. 

The  most  effectual  method,  therefore,  of  dealing  with  a  sandy 
soil  is  to  add  to  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  clay  to  hold  together  the 
fertilizing  and  nourishing  agents,  whether  naturally  present  or  arti- 
ficially introduced  ;  for  unless  this  is  done,  all  the  manurial  elements 
(having  nothing  to  retain  them)  will  be  washed  from  the  soil  by  the 
rains  and  completely  lost. 

Where  clays  are  not  readily  forthcoming,  the  use  of  marls  and 
lime  must  be  resorted  to  with  an  unsparing  hand  ;  the  latter  accom- 
panied with  as  much  as  possible  of  the  green  refuse  —  leaves,  stalks, 
etc.,  etc.,  from  the  various  crops. 

It  may  even  in  special  cases,  and  for  a  certain  period,  be  advisa- 
ble to  use  up  all  the  lower  orders  of  green  crops  entirely  as  manures 
for  this  kind  of  soil,  in  preference  to  keeping  or  selling  them  for 
food  ;  more  advantage  being  likely  to  accrue  from  the  beneficial  ac- 
tion exercised  by  their  decomposition  than  is  represented  by  any  mo- 
mentary profit  arising  from  their  sale  or  consumption. 

These  vegetable  substances  should  be  very  evenly  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  fields  and  plowed  in  simultaneously  with  the  lime. 
Their  beneficial  effects  arise  not  only  from  their  power  of  retention, 
but  also  from  their  attracting  and  fixing  the  nitrogen  in  the  air  and 
the  soil  by  the  processes  already  described. 

In  considering  all  that  has  been  written  in  the  preceding  pages 
upon  the  combinations  and  transformations  that  go  on  in  the  soils  — 
their  physical  and  chemical  defects,  and  the  means  by  which  we  are 
to  remedy  them  ;  and  in  examining  that  important  question  of  ma- 
nures wliich  we  are  now  about  to  open,  there  is  one  essential  element 


36  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

iii  the  conditions  of  success  in  high  farming  which  we  shall  do  well 
never  to  lose  sight  of.  We  refer  to  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the 
land  in  a  fine  workable  condition  by  continually  and  thoroughly  dis- 
integrating, aerating,  pulverizing  and  turning  it  over. 

We  have  lengthily  dwelt  upon  the  oxidation  and  combustion  of 
1  he  organic  matters,  and  the  beneficial  action  of  lime  and  other  ele- 
ments connected  with  their  decomposition.  We  have  shown  how 
clayey  soils  may  be  made  porous,  and  suggested  means  of  rendering 
more  tenacious  and  retentive  those  composed  of  sand.  But  in  all 
these  cases,  unless  the  necessary  means  are  adapted  for  breaking  up 
the  atoms  and  so  finely  dividing  them  as  to  make  them  accessible  to 
the  action  of  air  and  water  —  in  other  words,  pulverizing  the  soil  — 
what  we  have  written  would  be  deprived  of  more  than  half  its  value. 

Now  it  stands  to  reason  that  certain  portions  of  a  good  soil,  and 
those  most  valuable  because  of  their  tenacity,  will  by  the  action  of 
the  rainfall  become  clodded;  while  others  —  the  sandy  and  least 
retentive  portions  only  —  will  remain  in  a  state  of  separation  or 
division.  If,  under  such  conditions  as  these,  we  introduce  into 
the  soil  a  costly  manure  containing  either  nitrates  or  ammoniacal 
salts,  we  shall  find  that  those  lumpy,  hard  and  clodded  portions, 
whose  express  mission  it  is  to  keep  together  and  hold  these  elements 
in  store  at  the  disposal  of  the  tender  young  rootlets,  will  not  even 
receive  them,  and  that  with  the  very  first  application  of  water 
they  will  be  washed  away. 

We  have  all  seen — we  see  every  day  if  we  keep  our  eyes  open  — 
not  only  in  our  own  fields,  but  in  the  fields  of  our  neighbors,  cer- 
tain small  delightful  patches  of  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  scattered 
here  and  there  without  any  regard  to  order  or  regularity.  The 
stalks  are  higher  and  stronger  ;  the  ears  fuller  ;  the  grains  larger  and 
more  plentiful ;  and  the  whole  aspect  of  these  "  fairy  rings"  offer 
such  a  marked  contrast  to  the  other  portion  of  the  surrounding  crop, 
as  to  irresistibly  chain  our  attention  and  excite  our  wonder. 

But  no  great  genius  is  needed  to  discern  the  cause  of  this  mar- 
velous effect,  which  is  simply  a  practical  demonstration  of  two 
important  facts  : 


MODEKN"    HIGH    FARMING.  37 

FIHST. — The  undoubted  efficacy  of  artificial  manures,  when  well 
selected  and  judiciously  applied, 

SECOND. — That  a  badly  worked  soil,  in  a  lumpy  and  imperfect  state 
of  division,  is  incapable  of  affording  to  the  plants  that  amount 
of  nourishment  essential  to  perfect  development. 

Whenever  we  find  it  practicable,  we  recommend  deep  plowing; 
and,  while  filled  with  a  becoming  reverence  for  the  memory  of  our 
grandfathers,  we  must  deprecate  the  custom  of  too  closely  treading 
in  their  footprints.  They  were  fain  to  rest  content  with  the  natural 
but  only  partial  disintegration  ensuing  from  exposure  of  the  up- 
turned clods  to  the  atmospheric  air  ;  but  we,  let  us  remember,  live 
in  an  age  of  progress  and  of  rapid  communication  ;  and  in  agricul- 
ture, as  in  all  other  things,  "the  race  is  to  the  fittest.'' 

If  we  would  outrun  —  or  even  keep  pace  with  —  our  competi- 
tors, we  must  watch  and  take  lessons  from  the  signs  of  the  times, 
which  teach  us  that  we  must  increase  our  production  and  decrease 
our  cost.  In  other  words,  we  must  make  the  lands  produce  their 
very  best  and  largest  crops,  and  in  doing  so  must  not  only  utilize 
our  capital  and  our  labor,  but  must  freely  exercise  our  brains  as 
well. 

The  general  practice  now  prevailing  in  Europe,  of  not  only 
well  pulverizing  the  soil  after  it  has  been  plowed  over  and  allowed 
to  dry,  but  of  repeating  the  operation  at  the  time  of  adding  to  it  the 
manure,  and  thus  blending  and  mixing  the  whole,  has  been  produc- 
tive of  the  best  results. 

By  following  this  course  we  shall  attain  a  highly  conditioned  and 
sensitive  soil,  denting  in  due  season  all  the  benefits  of  the  rains, 
frosts,  thaws,  and  solar  heat;  our  manurial  agents  will  be  equally 
disseminated  over  an  equally  divided  soil  ;  and  we  shall  thus  not 
only  render  them  doubly  efficacious,  but  shall  effect  a  large  economy 
in  the  quantity  necessary  to  be  used. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PROGRESS  OF   THE   MANURE   TRADE   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES LOW 

PRICE  versus  REAL  VALUE now  THE  FARMER  is  SWINDLED 

BOGUS    MANURES NECESSITY    FOR    ANALYSIS    DEMON- 
STRATED  HOW    TO    STAMP    OUT    THE    EVIL ADVICE     TO 

MANUFACTURERS. 

To  the  questions  :  How  are  we  to  prevent  the  soils  from  becom- 
ing exhausted  ? — What  must  we  do  to  increase  rather  than  allow  to 
diminish  our  yearly  production  ?  we  have  already  foreshadowed 
our  reply.  Let  us  liberally  return  to  the  lands  the  equivalent  of  that 
which  we  have  borrowed,  and  remember  that  our  endeavors  to  get 
something  out  of  nothing,  will  be  like  trying  to  squeeze  a  quart  of 
liquid  into  a  pint  pot  — sheer  waste  of  time  and  ingenuity. 

We  have  only  to  look  about  us  to  find  out  that  the  truth  of  our 
doctrine  is  already  admitted  ;  that  it  is  rapidly  gaining  ground ; 
that  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  this  vast  country,  earnest 
men  are  striving  by  experiment  and  example  to  root  out  existing 
prejudices.  These  missionaries  are  succeeding  in  their  work,  surely 
if  slowly.  We  have  the  evidence  of  their  success  in  the  steady 
growth  of  the  principal  industries  connected  with  the  manufacture 
of  fertilizers,  of  which  the  present  annual  production  exceeds 
500,000  tons ! 

What  we  have  now  chiefly  to  examine,  therefore,  is  not  so  much 
the  necessity  of  using  manures  —  since  that  is  admitted  —  as  what 
kind  of  manures  we  are  to  use. 

When  a  sensible  man  purchases  a  pair  of  boots,  he  tells  his  shoe- 
maker he  wants  an  article  that  will  wear  well,  and  that  he  is  ready 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  39 

to  pay  a  fair  price  for  it.  Sound  quality  is  his  first  consideration. 
Why  should  not  the  very  same  idea  predominate  when  we  are  buying 
a  manure,  and  what  is  the  invariable  consequence  of  a  contrary 
policy  ?  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  "  fertilizer  "  is  but  an  abomin- 
able satire  upon  the  name,  and,  having  no  other  recommendation 
than  its  cheapness,  produces  no  fertility.  Its  purchase  is  conse- 
quently the  cause  of  a  double  loss  :  first,  the  money  paid  for  its 
purchase,  and  second,  the  increase  which  would  have  accrued  from 
the  use  of  a  good  manure. 

As  a  means  of  illustrating  our  meaning,  we  may  here  quote  a 
case  selected  from  hundreds  which  have  come  under  our  notice. 

About  three  years  ago,  we  were  requested  by  a  farmer  in  the 
south  of  France,  to  explain  how  we  reconciled  our  theories  with  the 
facts  resulting  from  his  practical  experience  ?  He  had  made  liberal 
and  costly  application  of  manures  to  his  soils,  and  no  increase  or 
amelioration  had  taken  place  in  his  crops  !  Interrogated  as  to  what 
manure  Le  had  been  using,  and  what  was  the  nature  of  his  soil,  he 
was  totally  unable  to  give  any  satisfactory  reply  ;  but  informed  us 
that  he  had  purchased  the  material,  prescribed  and  recommended  by 
an  agent  who  had  called  upon  him,  and  that  in  doing  so  he  had  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  many  of  his  neighbors. 

Upon  examination  of  his  soil,  we  found  it  to  be  of  the  poorest 
sandy  character,  composed  as  follows  : 

Moisture 1.80 

Organic  Matter  4.92 

Oxides  of  Iron  and  Alumina 6.73 

Phosphoric  Acid traces. 

Carbonate  of  Lime...   3.01 

Potash 0.23 

Magnesia 1.49 

Sand  and  Insoluble  Silicates .  .81.82 


100.00 

Had  we  been  consulted  previous  to  the  addition  of  any  manure, 
we  should  have  recommended,  for  growing  cereals  in  such  a  soil  as 


•40  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

this,  a  good  mixture  of  about  equal  parts  of  cheap  cotton-seed  cake 
dust  and  well  made  superphosphate,  containing  about  14  per  cent, 
of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  —  with  the  addition  of,  say,  one-fifth  of 
their  combined  weight  of  muriate  of  potash. 

This  mixture,  well  plowed  in  and  thoroughly  mixed,  with  a  heavy 
top-dressing  of  slaked  lime  in  fine  powder,  would  not  have  failed  to 
produce  excellent  results — considering  the  poverty  of  the  ground. 

An  analysis  of  the  manure  actually  used  showed  it  to  chiefly  con- 
sist of  valueless  alkaline  salts,  sand,  and  earthy  matters  (probably  a 
mixture  of  common  poudrctte  and  sand),  minute  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen, and  about  ten  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime  ;  the  whole  with  a 
very  foetid  odor,  to  mislead  the  farmer,  who  has  somehow  an  idea 
that  no  manure  is  manure  unless  it  has  a  strong  and  characteristic 
smell. 

This  worthless  mixture,  foisted  upon  an  ignorant  man  by  a  smooth- 
tongued rascal,  was  sold  to  him  as  phospho-guano,  at  the  price  of 
thirty  dollars  per  ton,  in  bags  delivered  at  his  farm,  and  would  have 
been  dear  at  one-sixth  of  that  price  ! 

If  agriculture  is  to  remain  the  basis  of  the  wealth  of  this  coun- 
try ;  if  the  United  States  are  to  ultimately  become  the  greatest  food 
producers  for  the  world's  teeming  millions,  there  must  be  no  such 
thing  as  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  or  poverty  in  the  crops. 

The  preventive  remedies  are  known  to  us,  and  it  rests  entirely 
with  ourselves  to  acquire  them  with  certainty.  On  the  one  hand 
we  know  that  an  acre  of  fertile  land  should  contain  a  certain  per- 
centage of  phosphoric  acid.  On  the  other  hand  we  have  discovered 
that  our  own  soil  falls  considerably  short  of  the  quantity  required 
by  the  crops  we  desire  to  grow.  We  base  our  estimates  upon  the 
deficiency,  and  introduce  a  given  quantity  of  superphosphate  of 
lime. 

The  law  says  that,  every  trader  in  manures  shall  guarantee  the 
genuineness  of  his  wares  by  the  test  of  chemical  analysis.  In  other 
words,  if  superphosphate  be  sold  as  containing  12  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  be  found  to  contain  only  half  that  quantity,  the 
seller  is  deemed  guilty  of  fraud  and  is  liable  to  punishment.  JJut 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  41 

can  any  penalty  be  proportionate  to  the  enormous  evil  caused  by 
this  fraud,  by  which  the  farmer  is  robbed  not  only  of  his  money, 
but  of  his  time,  his  labor,  his  seed,  the  interest  on  his  capital,  and 
the  rent  of  his  unproductive  land. 

"We  are  taught  by  an  old  adage  that,  "  the  wise  rogue  is  the  fool's 
natural  parasite,"  and  every  day  brings  fresh  instances  of  the  folly 
and  gullibility  of  mankind.  Now,  we  do  not  agree  with  Carlyle  in 
thinking  that  the  majority  of  our  rural  population  is  composed  of 
"mostly  fools."  and  our  system  of  education  is  gradually  raising 
the  standard  of  their  intellect  and  intelligence,  to  a  point  which  will 
soon  leave  the  villages  very  little  or  nothing  to  learn  from  the  towns. 

Notwithstanding  this,  it  is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  any  class 
of  men  can  suddenly  overcome  their  old  habits;  discard  their  tradi- 
tions ;  abandon  as  worthless  all  those  methods  which  have  been 
handed  down  to  them  through  countless  generations  ;  and  throw 
themselves  into  our  arms  without  due  reflection  and  perhaps  some 
fighting.  All  great  reforms  have  commenced  with  small  minorities, 
and  have  had  to  struggle  in  the  cause  of  truth,  against  prejudice, 
interest,  and  established  custom,  before  being  universally  adopted. 
Is  it  not  natural  to  expect  that  the  great  discoveries  of  scientific 
culture,  should  at  first  be  sneered  at  and  scouted  by  those  who  are 
unable  as  yet  to  understand  them  ? 

If  the  farmer  will  only  take  seriously  to  heart  what  we  are  trying 
to  impress  upon  him  ;  if  he  will  only  realize,  once  and  forever,  that 
the  science  of  high  farming  is  no  longer  a  shadow  but  a  living  and 
indispensable  reality,  there  will  soon  be  an  end  to  unproductive 
lands. 

The  States  have  placed  at  his  disposal,  and  near  to  his  hand,  most 
excellent  chemists,  ever  ready  to  advise  and  to  assist  him ;  he  can 
therefore  no  longer  plead  ignorance  in  extenuation  of  any  of  his 
shortcomings. 

A  very  trifling  outlay,  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  im- 
portance of  the  result,  will  obtain  for  him  all  the  information  he 
requires  :  the  composition  of  his  soil,  the  elements  in  which  it  is 
deficient,  and  in  what  form  those  substances  can  best  be  introduced. 


42  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

When  these  points  have  till  been  settled,  and  when  he  has  pur- 
chased his  manure,  chemistry  will  again  step  in  and  determine 
whether,  in  what  he  has  bought,  the  necessary  elements  are  actually 
contained. 

We  are  all  inclined,  more  or  less,  to  be  negligent  even  of  our 
best  interests,  and  we  are  satisfied  that  the  majority  of  our  farmers 
do  not  trouble  to  analyze  the  manures  they  purchase,  but  are  fain  to 
rely  upon  the  promises  and  representations  of  the  dealers.  Alas  ! 
for  the  frailty  of  human  nature  !  "  Opportunity  makes  the  thief." 

How  many  fertilizer  mixers  and  dealers,  arc  there  in  the  world 
who  are  too  high-souled  to  profit  by  this  situation  ? 

If  once  the  custom  of  analyzing  all  purchased  manures  becomes  a 
thing  of  course  —  looked  upon  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  commercial 
transaction  ;  if  once  our  farmers  will  take  the  trouble  to  ascertain 
the  monetary  value  of  all  the  ingredients  employed  in  making  man- 
ure, they  will  be  able  to  distinguish  what  is  good  from  what  is 
worthless,  and  by  ceasing  to  buy  cheap  "rubbish,"  will  deal  a  death- 
blow at  those  miserable  swindlers  who  trade  in  stuff  which  is  "only 
made  to  sell." 

The  foregoing  remarks  are  prompted  by  our  strong  desire  to  sup- 
press an  evil,  the  dire  effects  of  which  are  so  widespread  as  to  in- 
directly strike  at  every  interest. 

If  we  are  to  have  cheap  food  it  must  be  produced  in  abundance  ! 

How  can  it  be  produced  in  abundance  if  agriculturists  are  baulked 
in  their  efforts  at  improvement,  and  ruined  by  their  purchase  of  ma- 
terials which  can  give  them  no  return  ? 

The  extensive  sale  of  these  so-called  fertilizers  under  high-flown 
names,  has  done  much  to  disgust  those  who  have  been  victimized, 
with  all  ideas  of  progress,  and  has  inspired  them  with  such  distrust 
of  artificial  manures,  that,  rather  than  make  fresh  trials  and  run 
fresh  risks,  they  prefer  to  see  their  lands  in  a  state  of  comparative 
sterility. 

There  surely  must  be — there  naturally  is — a  large  number  of 
manure  manufacturers  in  the  United  States  of  strict  integrity  and 
undoubted  honor,  and  we  would  suggest  to  these,  that  they  have  a 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMIKG.  43 

remedy  against  this  evil  in  their  own  hands,  which,  better  than  any 
legislative  measures,  can  at  once  stamp  it  out. 

Let  first-class  manufacturers  be  of  less  difficult  approach  to  the 
real  consumers  of  their  produce,  and  let  them  at  once  pass  over  the 
"  middlemen  "  who  find  in  adulteration  such  ready  means  of  making 
profit.  Let  them  now  organize,  in  every  region  within  reasonable 
access  of  their  works,  some  kind  of  farmers'  commercial  club  or 
"fertilizer  syndicate"  (?)  with  an  energetic  president  and  capable 
secretary.  Let  it  be  the  duty  of  these  two  officials  to  discover  and 
to  tabulate  the  actual  requirements  of  every  member,  in  all  kinds  of 
manures,  so  that  at  proper  seasons  and  in  convenient  time  they  may 
be  manufactured  in  one  batch. 

Let  some  good  chemist  be  chosen  by  the  club  on  the  one  side 
and  by  the  manufacturer  on  the  other,  and  arrangements  be  made 
for  contradictory  sampling.  Let  the  deliveries  all  be  made  at  the 
same  period,  and  allow  the  sampling  to  be  performed  in  the  presence 
of  a  chosen  representative  of  the  club,  when  the  manure  has  been 
loaded  and  is  ready  for  delivery. 

Let  analyses  of  each  parcel  be  made  by  the  respective  chemists, 
and  in  case  of  a  sensible  difference  between  them,  by  a  third  chemist 
mutually  agreed  upon  and  whose  decision  would  be  final. 

Let  each  member  furnish  to  the  club  in  some  form  agreed  upon 
at  a  general  meeting  of  their  whole  body,  a  suitable  guarantee  for 
the  due  payment  pro  rata,  of  the  portion  of  manure  supplied  and 
invoiced  to  him  by  the  club. 

Finally,  let  the  club  itself  arrange  with  its  local  banker,  by  a 
transfer  of  the  securities  which  it  has  received,  to  guarantee  the  pay- 
ment of  the  manufacturers'  invoices  in  due  season,  say  at  four  or  six 
months,  from  the  date  of  delivery. 

The  advantages  of  some  such  a  system  as  this,  appear  to  us  to  be 
very  striking,  and  we  feel  certain  that  its  adoption  would  be  pro- 
ductive of  mutual  benefit  and  general  satisfaction. 


CHAPTER  IX; 

TIT  10    DIFFERENT   KINDS    OF   MANURE  NOTES    ON    VEGETABLE   MA- 
NURES   ANIMAL    PRODUCTS THEIR    ANNUAL    RECKLESS 

WASTE   ESTIMATE    OF    THE     LOSS    TO     AGRICULTURE  — 

HINTS  ON  THEIR  PRESERVATION  AND   UTILIZATION GUANOS 

DESCRIBED   AND  ANALYZED THEIR  VARIABLE  QUALITY  — 

FISH  MANURES TABLE   OF   NITROGENOUS   SUBSTANCES. 

A  complete  description  and  analysis  of  all  the  substances  used  as 
manure  would  of  itself  fill  a  considerable  volume,  but  we  doubt 
whether  the  advantage  of  such  a  treatise  would  be  proportionate  to 
the  labor  of  its  compilation. 

We  shall  therefore  confine  our  remarks  to  those  of  generally  recog- 
nized utility,  classing  them  as  vegetable,  animal,  mixed  (or  farm- 
yard), and  mineral  manures. 

VEGETABLE  MANURE. 

Every  description  of  plant  —  roots,  stalks,  leaves  and  seeds  — 
becomes,  when  plowed  into  the  soil,  a  valuable  fertilizing  agent. 

The  most  important,  however,  are  those  of  the  leguminous  species, 
thanks  to  their  long  and  trailing  roots,  by  means  of  which  they  pen- 
etrate to  a  considerable  depth  into  the  earth,  and  thus  acquire  from 
below,  elements  which  other  plants  are  unable  to  attain. 

From  this  reason  the  benefit  of  rotatory  crops  becomes  manifest, 
and  we  understand  at  once  why  wheat  crops  are  so  much  more 
plentiful,  when  following  two  or  three  crops  of  clover  or  luzerne. 

The  quantity  of  roots  and  stubble,  or  waste,  from  a  crop  of  clover 
has  been  estimated  to  weigh,  when  dried  at  a  normal  temperature, 
one  thousand  pounds  per  acre.  This  would  contain  about  fifteen 


!V\ 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  45 

pounds  of  assimilable  nitrogen,  and  consequently  be  equal  to  nearly 
two  tons  of  ordinary  farm-yard  manure. 

OIL  CAKES  contain  five  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  about  three 
per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  with  traces  of  potash.  When  damaged 
or  otherwise  unfit  for  cattle-feeding,  they  may  be  employed  as  ma. 
nures  with  excellent  results,  especially  on  sandy  or  too  porous  soils. 

In  some  districts  near  the  coast,  the  sea  weeds  gathered  along  the 
shore  are  found  to  have  a  beneficial  action,  but  as  they  contain  a 
maximum  of  one  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  insignificant  portions  of 
phosphoric  acid,  we  must  consider  their  efficiency  to  solely  arise 
from  their  slow  carbonization  or  decomposition. 

We  have  already  dwelt  at  considerable  length,  in  our  previous 
chapters,  upon  the  chemical  action  of  vegetable  organic  matter  on  the 
various  bodies  contained  in  the  soil,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  repeat 
here  that  in  all  cases  where  it  is  desired  to  grow  cereals  and  to  pro- 
duce plentiful  crops  on  an  economical  basis,  the  farmer  will  do  well, 
rather  than  sell  his  green  crops,  to  plow  them  into  his  wheat  field  as 
manures,  and  to  plow  them  in  evenly  and  with  an  unsparing  hand. 

ANIMAL  MANURES. 

Those  within  this  category  most  worthy  of  attention  are  human 
dejections,  guano,  blood,  fish,  wool,  rags,  horns,  -hoofs,  hair,  and 
all  animal  refuse  from  the  slaughter  houses. 

The  efficacy  of  night-soil  as  a  fertilizer  has  been  recognized  from 
time  immemorial  by  practical  farmers,  but  it  is  still  more  so  now 
that  the  advancement  of  science  has  permitted  us  to  accurately  esti- 
mate its  valuable  elements,  and  to  judge  of  the  reckless  manner  in 
which  they  are  yearly  thrown  away. 

If  we  take  the  average  weight  of  the  entire  population  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  at  ninety  pounds  each  for  men,  women  and  children, 
we  find  that  the  daily  product  proportionate  to  this  weight  must  not 
be  less  than  two  pounds  per  head. 

The  present  population  being  estimated  at  fifty-five  millions,  we 
should  reach  the  figure  of  fifty-five  thousand  tons  per  day,  or,  in 
round  figures,  twenty  million  tons  per  year. 


40  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

Taking  the  active  principles  to  be  in  the  proportion  of  27  pounds 
of  nitrogen  and  6  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  per  ton,  we  can  easily 
arrive  at  the  annual  total  value  by  the  following  simple  calculation  : 

27  -f  20,000,000=  270,000  tons  nitrogen,  at  $50  per  ton,  $13,500,000 
6  +  20,000,000=    60,000    "  phosphoric  acid,  $30  "  1,800,000 

Net  total  value,  $15,300,000 

It  is  a  standing  reproach  to  chemical  science  that  we  have  not 
been  able  to  devise  a  means  of  practically  turning  these  vast  agricul- 
tural necessities  to  account,  and  that  because  of  our  inability  to  con- 
veniently store  and  render  them  inoffensive,  our  legislators  are  com- 
pelled to  send  them  through  the  sewers  into  the  sea. 

All  the  attempts  hitherto  made  to  recover  these  substances  from 
the  sewage  by  means  of  precipitation  have  ended  in  failure,  from  the 
fact  that  chemistry  has  not  yet  discovered  a  method  of  effecting  this 
precipitation,  owing  to  the  extreme  solubility  and  volatility  of  the 
efficient  constituents. 

If  these  elements  of  fertilization  are  ever  to  be  turned  to  good 
account  in  the  proper  channels  for  their  employment,  they  must  be 
kept  out  of  the  sewers,  where  they  do  immense  harm  by  contamina- 
ting our  drinking  water  and  propagating  diphtheria,  and  be  sub- 
mitted to  some  practical  process  of  rapid  desiccation. 

The  system  by  which  these  materials  are  turned  to  account  in 
some  parts  of  Europe,  consists  in  allowing  them  to  deposit  in 
tanks,  built  for  the  purpose.  In  due  course  the  supernatent  liquid  is 
decanted  off  and  used  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  ; 
while  the  solid  portion  is  dried  up  by  the  addition  of  slaked  lime, 
and  sold  in  bags  under  the  familiar  name  of  poudrette. 

A  good  sample  of  this  manure,  lately  submitted  to  us  for 
analysis,  was  found  to  contain  forty-eight  per  cent,  of  organic 
matter,  two  and  one-Tourth  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  six  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  ten  per  cent  of  lime  ;  and  would  doubtless  be 
productive  of  very  excellent  results  in  the  field. 

Wherever  such  operations  are  practicable,  we  strongly  recom- 
mend all  farmers  to  build  small  tanks  in  various  portions  of  their 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  47 

ground.  These  tanks  should  be  about  five  feet  square  and  six  or 
seven  feet  in  depth,  and  must  be  carefully  lined  with  good  Portland 
cement.  Into  these  tanks  should  be  thrown  the  whole  of  the  night 
soil  collected  in  the  neighborhood  ;  care  being  taken  to  keep  them 
well  covered  by  nicely  adapted  wooden  lids,  and  to  exclude  the 
entry  of  water.  The  occasional  addition  of  finely  powdered 
slaked  lime  will  assist  the  drying  and  effectually  destroy  all  smell. 

GUANO. 

No  name  is  more  widely  and  generally  known,  even  to  the  smal- 
lest child,  than  that  of  this  popular  fertilizer,  and  although  it  has 
served  for  many  years  as  a  cloak  to  swindlers  of  every  kind,  who 
have  sold  under  its  name  piles  of  worthless  trash,  farmers  can- 
not forget  their  old  affection  for  it. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  for  a  considerable  length  of  time 
after  its  introduction,  very  marvelous  effects  followed  the  applica- 
catiou  of  this  manure,  but  the  enormous  and  continual  drain  upon 
the  production,  and  the  never- varying  result  of  speculation  and  job- 
bery, would  seem  to  have  told  a  tale  upon  it,  and  the  quality  is  now 
of  a  very  variable  nature,  with  a  tendency  to  become  more  and 
more  so,  as  time  goes  on. 

The  principal  sources  of  supply  are  Peru,  Chili,  Bolivia  and  the 
South  Sea  Islands  ;  and  the  deposits  proceed  from  a  species  of  sea 
fowl  known  as  Guanaes,  which  feed  upon  the  small  fish  that  liter- 
ally swarm  the  waters  near  the  coast. 

The  high  percentage  of  nitrogen  contained  in  the  Peruvian  ship- 
ments of  former  years,  must  be  attributed  to  the  absence  of  rain, 
which  characterizes  that  country;  those  arriving  from  other  regions 
having  lost  a  considerable  portion  of  their  ammoniacal  salts  through 
the  action  of  water. 

The  trade  in  Peruvian  guano  is  monopolized  by  the  Peruvian 
government,  and  the  immense  deposits  sometimes  attain  a  depth 
of  one  hundred  feet. 

This  latter  fact  has  induced  a  great  deal  of  controversy  as  to  the 
period  from  which  we  should  date  their  commencement,  some  author- 


48  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

itics  being  of  opinion  that  it  must  necessarily  be  before  the  deluge. 

In  his  very  able  book  upon  the  subject,  Mr.  F.  de  Rivero  ad- 
vances some  skilful  arguments  to  prove  that  they  are  of  more 
recent  date  ;  and,  basing  his  calculations  upon  the  existing  quantity 
of  about  20,000,000  tons,  he  says  : 

"Presuming  the  constant  presence  of  only  264,000  of  these  birds, 
(and  I  am  perfectly  convinced  there  is  nothing  at  all  exaggerated  in 
these  figures),  supposing  each  bird  to  furnish  but  one  ounce  of  ma- 
nure in  every  twenty-four  hours,  we  easily  arrive  at  the  figure  named, 
in  a  period  of  between  five  and  six  thousand  years." 

The  value  of  real  guanos  from  all  sources  is  estimated  upon  the 
basis  of  their  nitrogen,  ammonia,  phosphate  and  organic  matter, 
and  when  of  sound  quality  they  have  generally  realized  from  $65  to 
$70  per  ton. 

The  following  are  the  analyses  of  two  cargoes  purporting  to  be 
of  the  same  quality  and  shipped  from  the  same  port  at  the  same 
time,  arriving  in  London  at  the  commencement  of  1882  : 

PERUVIAN  GUANO. 

CAUGO  No.  1.                                                     CARGO  No.  2. 
Moisture 1G..OO        15.28 

"•Organic  Matter,        (                         ro  ,n  14  72 

Salt*  of  Ammonia    )" °~50        14'<<J 

Phosphate  of  Lime 19  52 33.12 

tPhosphoric  Acid 3.12        traces 

Alkaline  Salts 8.00        8.93 

Insoluble  and  Sandy  Matters 0.80        27.95 

100.00  100.00 

*Nitrogen 15  30        2.70 

tSoluble  Phosphate  of  Lime 6.76        none 

As  these  are  far  from  being  exceptional  instances  of  the  great 
uncertainly  of  these  products,  we  feel  compelled — while  admitting 
that  no  better  manure  than  good  guano  is  to  be  found — to  advise  the 
discontinuance  of  their  use,  and  the  employment  of  well-made 
chemical  substitutes,  until  shippers  guarantee  them  to  contain  a 
stipulated  minimum  percentage  of  the  active  principles. 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  49 

FISH. 

The  refuse  of  all  kinds  of  fish  afford  sources  of  the  richest  and 
most  desirable  kind  of  manure,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  some 
wholesale  and  cheap  method  of  popularizing  it  has  not  been  forth- 
coming. When  cooked,  deprived  of  its  oil  and  water  by  heavy 
pressure,  and  thoroughly  dried,  it  is  easily  reduced  to  a  fine  powder, 
of  which  the  following  is  an  average  analysis : 

Moisture 1.30 

•^Nitrogenous  Organic  Matter 78.01 

Alkaline  Salts 5.30 

Chloride  of  Sodium Traces. 

Phosphate  of  Lime 15.00 

Magnesia 0.33 

Carbonate  of  Lime Traces 

Insoluable  Siliceous  Matter 0.06 

100.00 
*Equal  to  Nitrogen 10.00 

BLOOD,  WOOL-REFUSE,  HAIR,  HOOFS,  HORNS  AND  OFFAL. — 
All  these  are  valuable  sources  of  nitrogen,  and  in  some  cases  may 
be  economically  and  beneficially  employed.  They  call  for  no 
special  mention  and  are  nearly  all  old  friends  of  the  agricul- 
turist. We  append  a  list  of  sundry  materials  showing  their  ap- 
proximate percentage  in  assimilable  nitrogen,  which  may  not  be 
without  utility. 

Table  showing  the  quantity  of  nitrogen,  in  pounds,  contained  in  every 
one  hundred  pounds  of  the  following  substances : 

Nitrogen. 

100  pounds  cf  Shoddy  contain 7%  Iks. 

100  "      Wool  Dust  contain 0>£  Ibs. 

100  "      Dried  Blood  contain 12     Ibs. 

100  "      Rape  Cake  contain 5      Ibs. 

100  "      Cotton  Cake  contain 5^  Ibs. 

100  "      Sugar  Scum  contain 3     Ibs. 

100  "      Glue  Refuse  contain 2^4  Ibs. 

100  "      Leather  Cuttings  contain 8     Ibs. 

100  "      Crude  Ammonia  contain 7J^  Ibs, 


CHAPTER  X. 

FARM- YARD   MANUUKS COMPOSITION    OF  THEIR   LIQUID   AND    SOLID 

ELEMENTS COMPARATIVE    VALUE     OP     ABSORBENTS,     WITH 

ANALYSES COMPOSITION  OF  VARIOUS  STRAWS SUPERIOR 

VALUE     OF     TUE     LIQUID     SUBSTANCE HOW    TO  PRESERVE 

AND   UTILIZE   IT TREATMENT   OF   MANURE   HEAPS HOW 

TO   COMPLETE    THEIR    VALUE    AS    FERTILIZERS THEIR   DE- 
COMPOSITION   FORMATION     AND     DESCRIPTION     OF     HUMUS 

—  EXPERIMENTS  ON  FRESHLY  MADE  AND  FERMENTED  MA- 
NURES  RESULTS  OF  EACH  EXPERIMENT GENERAL  RE- 
MARKS. 

In  entering  upon  an  examination  of  what  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant matter  with  which  we  have  had  to  deal,  we  shall  carefully 
avoid  all  ideas  of  prejudice  and  partiality. 

None  of  us  ignore  that  farm  yard  manures  have  for  many  cen- 
turies been  the  prop  and  mainstay  of  our  agricultural  operations, 
and  no  science  was  necessary  to  teach  us  that  it  owed  its  virtues  to 
its  happy  combination  of  physical  and  chemical  constituents. 

If  it  were  possible  for  those  who  cultivate  old  or  mature  soils  to 
manufacture  a  sufficiency  of  this  manure,  the  introduction  of  chem- 
ical substitutes  would  in  their  case  be  unnecessary,  and  the  problem 
which  is  occupying  our  attention  would  never  have  arisen. 

The  requisite  quantity  to  constitute  complete  restitution  could, 
however,  be  only  attained  by  literally  putting  back  the  whole  of  the 
crops  and  living  things  which  have  derived  direct  and  indirect  sus- 
tenance from  the  soil;  and  hence,  even  if  such  an  idea  were  not  ab- 
surd, it  would  be  impracticable,  since  the  grains,  seeds,  cattle,  poultry, 
milk,  butter  and  wool,  are  all  sent  to  market  and  go  to  feed  the  teem- 
ing populations  of  the  towns. 


MODERN"   HIGH    FARMING. 


51 


Such  manures  as  we  are  able  to  gather  up  in  and  about  our  farms, 
from  all  sources,  may  consequently  be  considered  as  the  mere  excess 
taken  from  the  soil  by  the  crops  gathered  in,  and  would  certainly 
not  suffice  of  themselves  to  stay  the  already  marked  impoverishment 
and  eventual  exhaustion  which  must  naturally  be  the  effect  of  such 
a  comprehensible  cause. 

We  may,  therefore,  consider  the  employment  of  chemical  and  artifi- 
cial fertilizing  matters,  as  not  one  whit  less  necessary  in  places  where 
an  abundance  of  offal  appears  to  exist,  than  it  is  in  other  circumstan- 
ces where  there  is  very  little  or  none  at  all,  and  the  liberal  employ- 
ment, judicious  selection  and  economical  purchase  or  manufacture 
of  sound  manurial  materials  is  the  fundamental  condition  of  suc- 
cessful high  farming. 

We  must  consider  it  a  matter  of  very  third  rate,  if  of  any  impor- 
tance to  us,  whether  a  manure  is  vegetable,  animal,  mineral,  natural 
or  artificial,  having  merely  to  assure  ourselves  by  chemical  analysis 
that  it  contains  the  needful  elements,  and  that  by  its  employment  we 
can  increase  our  crops  and  enhance  our  profits. 

The  value  of  stable  dung  must  not  be  estimated  upon  its  actual 
richness  in  ammonia  or  phosphoric  acid  within  a  short  period  of  its 
production,  but  must  be  calculated  on  its  wonderful  physical  and 
chemical  action  on  the  elements  of  the  soil  and  the  air,  and  upon  its 
merits  as  a  vehicle  or  conductor  into  which  completing  quantities 
of  outside  substances  can  be  introduced,  decomposed,  and  rapidly 
made  available. 

The  composition  of  its  different  constituents  may  here  be  set 
forth  in  the. following  order  : 

Analysis  of  various  kinds  of  Stable   Urine. 


SHEEP 

HOUSES 

OXEN 

GOATS 

Pwa 

Water  

..90.40 

90.50 

91.40 

98.20 

98.20 

*Organic  Matters  

..  1.00 

5.50 

5.50 

0.90 

0.50 

t  Alkaline  Salts  

..  2.60 

4.00 

3.10 

0.90 

1.30 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

*Oontaining  Nitrogen.  .  . 

..   1.70 

1.75 

1.50 

traces 

minute  qnan. 

t      "    Phosphoric  Acid. 

.  .  traces 

traces 

traces 

traces 

traces 

52  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

The  quantity  per  head  yearly  produced  of  this  liquid  may  be 
estimated  at : 

For  Cows Four  to  Five  Tons. 

"    Horses Three  to  Four  Tons. 

Analysis  of  various  kinds  of  Solid  Excreta. 

SHEEP  HORSES  OXEN  PIGS 

Water 68.71  78.36  79.72  75.00 

"Organic  Matters 23.16  19.10  16.04  20.15 

t Alkaline  Salts...                                ..  8.13  2.54  4.24  4.85 


100.00          100.00          100.00          100.00 


Containing  Nitrogen 0.72  0.55  0.32  0.70 

t          "  Phosphoric  Acid 1.52  1.22  0.74  3.87 

The  result  of  many  investigations  of  the  mixed  matters  above 
detailed,  prove  them  to  contain  in  every  hundred  pounds  rather  le?s 
than  half  a  pound  of  nitrogen  and  about  two  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid. 

The  collection,  absorption,  and  association  of  the  liquid  with  the 
solid  matters,  being  the  most  important  factor  in  the  manufacture  of 
an  efficient  product,  it  is  in  all  cases  advisable  to  use  abundant 
quantities  of  cereal  straws  for  littering  or  bedding,  in  preference  to 
any  other  material;  they  having  been  found  to  possess  the  greatest 
possible  capacity  for  holding  moisture,  as  indicated  by  the  following 
figures  : 

Table  showing  the  powers  of  absorbing  water  in  24  hours,  by  every  100 

pounds  of  the  following  kinds  of  straws,  as  compared 

with  those  of  other  substances. 

Wheat  Straw  absorbs 110  pounds. 

Barley        "  "       285 

Oats  "  "       228 

Colza         "  "       200 

Corn  "  "      162 

Marl  absorbs 40 

Dry  vegetable  soil  absorbs 50        " 

The  chief  active  principles  which  form  the  composition  of  cereal 
straws  and  other  vegetable  matter,  commonly  used  for  bedding  in 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  53 

stables,  have  been  ascertained  to  be  the  following  :  the  quantities 
shown  in  the  table  being  those  contained  in  every  ICO  pounds,  by 
weight  of  the  substance  analyzed. 

ASHES  Pno-riiORic  ACID  NITROGEN 

Wheat  Straw 3.51  0.25  0.24 

Rye          "      2.79  0.15  0.17 

Barley      "      5.24  0.20  0.23 

Oats         "      5.75  0.21  0.28 

Corn        "        4.00  0.86  0.19 

Colza  Tops :5.85  0.3G  0.75 

Vetche  "    5.10  0.28  0.10 

Bean      "    3.10  0.22  0.20 

Pea         "    5.00  0.59  1.79 

We  have  very  frequently  observed  that  in  the  minds  of  some 
farmers  —  producers  of  large  quantities  of  stable  offal  —  the  pre- 
vailing idea  is,  that  the  solid  portions  are  those  really  valuable,  and 
that  the  liquid  may  be  neglected  and  abandoned.  Our  great  object 
in  giving  the  above  analyses,  is  to  impress  upon  such  men  as  these 
the  utter  fallacy  of  their  opinions,  and  the  necessity  for  their  im- 
mediate reform,  and  to  persuade  them  that  they  are  continually 
making  serious  losses  by  the  waste  of  thte  precious  fertilizer. 

We  suggest  the  adoption  of  a  good  system  of  drainage  in  every 
stable,  the  flooring  of  which  should  be  upon  a  slight  incline  to  allow 
the  liquid  to  pass  off  with  facility,  by  means  of  undei«ground  pipes 
made  if  possible  from  good  refractory  clay.  The  urine  should  be  con- 
ducted to  tanks  or  reservoirs,  of  a  similar  nature  to  those  already 
recommended  in  a  previous  chapter,  and  be  kept  well  covered  over; 
these  tanks  should  be  connected  with  a  pump,  by  means  of  which 
the  liquid  could  frequently  be  made  to  saturate  the  forming  heaps 
of  manure,  thereby  serving  to  steady  and  regulate  the  fermentation 
or  process  of  combustion  going  on  within. 

If  due  weight  is  attached  to  those  points,  they  will  produce  the 
double  advantage  of  increasing  the  quantity  of  ammonia  contained 
in  the  ultimate  manure,  and  of  decreasing  the  risk  of  contaminating 
the  wells  or  springs  made  use  of  by  the  cattle,  if  not  by  the  popula- 
tion of  the  neighborhood. 


54  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

The  solid  portions  and  the  saturated  straw  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  under  the  cattle  as  long  as  is  consistent  with  health  and  con- 
venience. And  when  forked  up  should  be  carefully  mixed  and 
deposited  m  uniform  layers  upon  the  heap  ;  care  being  taken  to 
break  up  and  disseminate  all  lumpy  portions,  before  the  application 
of  the  liquid  by  means  of  the  pumping  process  above  described. 
The  very  highest  possible  results  will  be  obtained  if,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  each  heap,  the  habit  is  contracted  of  regularly  adding 
to  each  layer,  as  it  is  put  on,  a  certain  evenly  distributed  quantity  of 
some  artificial  manure,  the  nature  of  which  will  be  dictated,  and 
vary,  according  to  the  wants  of  the  soil  and  contemplated  crops. 

Supposing  a  high  grade  phosphatic  material  combined  with 
potash  to  be  necessary,  nothing  could  be  better  than  the  addition  of 
a  good,  soluble,  ten  or  twelve  per  cent,  superphosphate  of  lime, 
and  muriate  of  potash,  in  the  proportion  of  twenty-five  pounds  of 
the  first  and  ten  pounds  of  the  second,  to  every  hundred  pounds 
of  manure.  Whereas,  if  nitrogen  is  the  element  required  to  pre- 
ponderate, the  introduction  into  the  compost  of  wool  refuse,  leather 
scraps,  glue  refuse,  blood  and  other  offal,  collected  from  the  various 
dealers,  manufacturers  and  slaughter-houses,  in  the  nearest  towns 
is  highly  recommended. 

The  chemical  transformations  or  reactions  which  go  on  in  the 
compost  heaps  during  their  fermentation,  are  of  too  complex  a  na- 
ture to  be  fully  described  within  the  limits  we  have  prescribed  for 
ourselves,  nor  is  its  precise  knowledge  of  any  necessity  for  practi 
cal  purposes. 

We  shall  therefore  rest  content  with  explaining  that  a  process  of 
slow  combustion  or  carbonization  very  soon  sets  in,  and  serves  to 
maintain  a  temperature  of  about  100°  to  105°  Fahrenheit.  The  air 
within  the  mass  being  composed  of  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen 
gases,  with  traces  only  of  0x3* gen. 

By  making  a  clean  incision  in  such  a  fermenting  manure  heap 
as  we  have  described,  through  the  centre  from  the  top  to  the  bottom, 
we  shall  find  that  while  the  straw  at  the  surface  maintains  its  normal 
appearance,  it  gradually  assumes  a  dark  brown  color  towards 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  55 

the  middle  and  is  altogether  lost  lower  down,  in  a  black  slimy  mass 
of  decomposition  called  humus.  This  body  is  formed  under  the 
influence  of  atmospheric  oxygen  by  the  union  of  certain  elements 
contained  in  the  straw  or  vegetable  matters,  with  the  ammonia 
emanating  from  the  fermenting  animal  matters  urea,  uric  acid,  etc. 

That  the  presence  and  intervention  of  these  vegetable  elements 
is  indispenable  to  the  preservation  or  fixation  of  the  generating 
nitrogen,  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that,  if  the  animal  matters  were 
left  to  ferment  by  themselves,  this  element  would  rapidly  change 
into  the  phosphate,  thence  into  the  benzoate,  and  finally  into  the 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  in  which  form  it  would  immediately  vol- 
atilize and  be  a  total  loss. 

Humus  therefore  not  only  changes  this  volatile  carbonate  into  a 
fixed  and  staple  product,  but  possesses  the  faculty  of  absorbing  and 
retaining  fresh  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  rendering  it  assimilable 
when  transferred  to  the  soil. 

We  hope  that  by  these  explanations  we  have  impressed  upon 
farmers  the  necessity  of  allowing  their  farm  yard  manures  to 
undergo  a  thorough  process  of  fermentation,  and  to  completely  rot 
or  carbonize  before  making  use  of  them  in  the  field,  and  in  order  to 
make  our  meaning  still  more  clear,  let  it  be  remembered  that  : 

A. — If  freshly  made  manure  be  put  into  the  soil,  the  saline  and 
nitrogenous  portions  will  all  be  washed  away  by  the  first  fall 
of  rain,  and  lost. 

B. — If  the  manure  be  allowed  to  thoroughly  ferment,  the  nitro- 
genous matters  will  remain  insoluble  in  the  soil,  and  will  thus 
be  held  at  the  disposal  of  the  plants  ready  for  assimilation. 

A  series  of  very  interesting  experiments  upon  the  laws  laid  down 
by  the  illustrious  Paul  Thenard,  were  recently  made  by  ourselves, 
in  verification  of  these  assertions,  with  the  following  results  : 

The  drainings  from  a  field  near  Leeds,  in  Yorkshire,  liberally 
dressed  with  freshly  made  manure,  were  submitted  to  careful 
analysis  after  a  heavy  shower  of  rain,  and  found  to  contain  note- 
worthy quantities  of  nitrogenous  matters. 


50  MODERN"   HIGH   FARMING. 

After  publishing  the  complete  results  of  these  experiments,  we 
were  enabled  to  collect  the  drainage  from  a  large  field  in  Ports- 
mouth, Hampshire,  which  had  been  thorougly  dressed  with  com- 
pletely fermented  manure,  and  in  this  case  the  water  was  found 
to  bear  mere  traces  of  ammonia  or  nitrogenous  substances. 

A  few  experimenters  have  striven  within  the  past  few  years  to 
persuade  themselves  and  the  world  that  the  total  abandonment  of 
farm  yard  manure,  and  the  sole  employment  of  chemical  fertilizers, 
would  result  in  immense  economy  and  increased  production;  but  in 
nearly  every  case  within  our  knowledge,  where  the  seduction  of 
these  theories  has  prevailed  over  common  sense,  the  result  has  been, 
to  say  the  least,  discouraging. 

That  artificial  manures  of  every  kind  are  necessary,  we  have 
always  admitted  and  shall  always  propound  ;  that  as  supplements 
in  all  cases,  and  substitutes  in  some,  their  constant  employment  is 
naturally  indicated,  we  readily  agree  ;  but  that  they  can  ever  profit- 
ably and  usefully  replace  those  made  on  the  farm  either  physically 
or  chemically,  is  a  proposition,  to  our  minds,  too  ridiculous  to 
merit  discussion. 

When  due  care  has  not  been  taken  in  their  preparation  and 
treatment,  their  actual  and  normal  percentage  of  ammonia  may 
be  slight,  and  their  value,  from  that  standpoint,  insignificant  ;  but 
even  then,  (and  we  are  taking  them  at  their  worst),  if  their  fermen- 
tation has  been  complete,  and  their  rapid  oxidation  assured  by 
thorough  plowing  in  and  frequent  turning  over  in  a  well-conditioned 
soil,  no  artificial  nitrogenous  fertilizer  can  ever  be  compared  to 
them  for  economy  and  proportionate  efficacity. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MINERAL    MANURES BONES    AND    WHAT     THEY    TAUGHT    US 

SULPHURIC     ACID    AND    NITRATE   OP   SODA BONE   ASH 

ANIMAL     CHARCOAL,      OR     BONE     BLACK BONE     MEAL 

SULPHATE  OF  AMMONIA ITS  GREAT  POWER  OF  DECOM- 
POSING OTHER  MANURES IIOW  TO  DETECT  IMPURE  NITRATE 

OF  SODA NITRATE  OF  POTASH,  OR  S  \LTPETRE PHOS- 
PHATE OF  LIME RIVER  PHOSPHATES CANADIAN  PHOS- 
PHATE   A  RIDICULOUS  EXTORTION. 

We  have  now  to  undertake  the  examination  of  those  mineral 
fertilizers  which  come  next  in  order,  and  which  form  the  staples 
of  that  great  and  advancing  industry,  chemical  manure  manufac- 
ture. 

For  the  sake  of  comprehensiveness  and  brevity,  we  propose  to 
divide  our  subject  in  the  following  order  : 

FIRST. — A  hasty  glance  at  the  principal  sources  and  the  agricul- 
tural value  of  phosphatic  and  other  raw  materials  of  a  min- 
eral nature,  with  analytical  tables  showing  their  composition. 

SECOND. — A  description  of  the  principal  sources  of  sulphur  pyrites, 
and  of  sulphuric  acid  and  superphosphate  manufacture, 
with  brief  notes  on  the  mixing  of  various  compound  manures. 

As  we  have  already  roughly  described,  in  a  preceding  chapter, 
how  mineral  phosphates  are  found  in  nature,  we  need  merely  refer 
our  readers  to  the  particulars  there  given,  and  at  once  attack  the 
practical  question  before  us. 

BONES  are  a  very  old  and  very  favorite  manure,  and  it  is  to  their 
employment  and  to  the  researches  ensuing  upon  their  marked  effect 
that  we  owe  our  discoveries  relating  to  the  part  played  by  phos- 
phoric acid  in  the  soil. 


53  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Their  extensive  use  in  the  manufacture  of  phosphorus  has,  how- 
ever, so  much  enhanced  their  commercial  value,  that  we  may  look 
upon  them  as  beyond  the  reach  of  the  agriculturist. 

When  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid  and  mixed  with  nitrogenous 
materials,  or  farm-yard  offal,  to  form  complete  manures,  they  may 
be  considered  as  occupying  the  very  foremost  place  in  the  order  of 
merit  as  fertilizing  agents. 

They  are  frequently  used  with  nitrate  of  soda,  in  the  raw  crushed 
st:ite,  as  a  dressing  to  sandy  soils  and  pasture  lands ;  but  we  have 
personally  found  their  action  in  these  cases  to  be  very  slow,  and 
their  assimilation  a  work  of  time,  so  that  we  cannot  recommend 
a  continuance  of  the  practice. 

BONE  Asn  results  from  the  burning  of  bones  and  is  chiefly  ex- 
ported from  the  cattle-raising  districts  of  South  America,  where, 
fuel  being  scarce,  the  bones  are  burnt  in  the  process  of  extracting 
the  fat  from  the  slaughtered  oxen. 

ANIMAL  CHARCOAL  OR  BONE  BLACK  is  justly  esteemed  by  all 
those  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  it  on  reasonable  terms. 
It  is  an  excellent  absorbent,  and  is  extensively  used  in  sugar  refin- 
eries, being  only  delivered  to  agriculture  when  it  has  lost  its  powers 
of  discoloring  the  juices. 

BONE  MEAL  is  the  impalpable  powder  of  bones,  from  which  a 
steam  process  has  succeeded  in  extracting  all  the  gelatine. 

The  following  table  shows  the  general  composition  of  these  ma- 
terials : 


( 

Moisture.. 

CRUSHED 

BONES. 
6  94 

BONE 
ASH. 

2  18 

BONE 
MEAL. 

*Organic  Matter 

3693 

643 

17  15 

Phosphate  of  Lime  . 

48  26 

69  95 

6802 

Carbonate  of  Lime  and  undetermined  Mineral  Salts. 
Insoluble  Matter  

.     7.40 
.    0.41 

14.01 
7.43 

9.16 
040 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

•Containing  Nitrogen 3.72  Traces.  1.58 

SULPHATE  OP  AMMONIA  is  largely  obtained  from  animal  urine, 
but  chiefly  from  the  ammouiacal  liquor  derived   from   gas  works 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  59 

after  the  purification  of  gas.  These  liquors  are  mixed  with  fresh 
slacked  lime  and  forced  to  the  top  of  small  towers,  into  which  are 
fitted  a  series  of  trays.  The  liquid  flowing  over  the  edges  of  these 
trays  in  a  succession  of  small  cataracts,  is  met  and  traversed  by  a 
column  of  steam,  which  during  its  ascension,  deprives  it  of  all  its 
ammonia. 

The  steam  thus  charged  is  conducted  to  a  coil  of  perforated 
pipes  in  a  tank  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  which,  as  it  passes  through,  the 
ammonia  is  yielded  up. 

When  the  acid  is  fully  saturated,  it  is  led  into  another  tank  and 
allowed  to  settle,  and  finally  is  subjected  to  a  process  of  hot  concen- 
tration to  effect  the  crystallization  of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia. 
This  salt  has  the  form  of  white  or  greyish  transparent  crystals,  is 
sharp  and  bitter  to  the  taste,  is  soluble  in  twice  its  weight  of  cold 
water,  and  contains  an  average  of  twenty-one  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

We  have  before  alluded  to  it  as  an  invaluable  source  of  nitrogen, 
and  this,  although  sufficient,  is  not  the  only  virtue  for  which  it  recom- 
mends itself. 

Our  own  experiments  induce  us  to  believe  that  when  introduced 
into  the  soil,  the  sulphuric  acid  set  free  by  its  natural  transformation, 
largely  assists  the  decomposition  of  all  surrounding  organic  remains, 
and  transforms  any  phosphoric  acid  that  may  be  present  into  acid 
or  soluble  phosphate. 

NITRATE  OF  SODA  is  a  natural  mineral,  principally  found  in 
Chili  and  Peru,  and  shipped  from  Iquique.  It  occurs  in  large  beds, 
several  feet  thick,  intimately  mixed  up  with  sulphate,  chloride, 
iodide  of  sodium  and  many  other  bodies,  and  when  in  this  state  is 
known  in  commerce  as  caliche,  or  crude  nitre,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  typical  analysis  : 

Nitrate  of  Sodium 63.92 

Sulphate        "        4.01 

Sulphate  of  Lime Traces. 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia Traces. 

Chloride  of  Sodium • 28.32 

Iodide  "         76 

Insoluble  Matter. . .  2.99 


100.00 


00  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

After  having  undergone  the  refining  process,  it  contains  95 
per  cent,  of  pure  nitrate  of  soda,  and  14  to  16  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
gen, and  is  then  found  to  be  a  highly  stimulating  manure  for  grass- 
growing  in  meadow  lands. 

In  consequence,  however,  of  its  very  high  price,  it  is  frequently, 
if  not  generally,  the  object  of  adulteration,  and  should,  therefore, 
never  be  purchased  from  any  but  respectable  firms  with  a  written 
guarantee  of  its  analytical  contents.  Even  when  this  is  obtained,  it 
should  not  be  employed  before  its  genuineness  has  been  ascertained, 
and  the  following  rough  but  sufficiently  accurate  test  can  be 
applied  by  every  farmer,  when  no  chemical  laboratory  is  near  at 
hand. 

A  small  portion  of  the  nitrate  is  to  be  mixed  in  a  tea  cup  with 
sufficient  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid),  to  just  cover  it,  when,  if  a 
copious  quantity  of  greenish,  suffocating  vapor  be  given  off,  it  will 
be  evident  that  the  article  contains  a  large  proportion  of  common 
salt,  this  being,  from  the  similarity  of  its  appearance,  the  adulterant 
generally  used. 

Nitrate  of  soda  plays  a  very  leading  part  in  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid,  as  will  be  seen  later  on,  being  used  in  the  proportion 
of  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  sulphur  consumed. 

The  fact  of  its  costing  from  fifty  to  sixty  dollars  per  ton,  renders 
the  question  of  its  economical  application  one  of  the  most  difficult 
with  which  manufacturers  have  still  to  deal ;  and  there  are  unfortu- 
nately many  works  where,  owing  to  unskillful  manipulation,  instead 
of  five  per  cent.,  double  that  quantity  more  correctly  expresses  what 
is  used  or  wasted. 

Supposing,  therefore,  that  in  an  acid  works  which  burns  2,000 
tons  of  sulphur  per  annum,  in  any  of  its  forms,  10  per  cent,  of 
nitrate  is  consumed,  we  may  fairly  consider  that  there  is  an  unnec- 
essary waste  of  100  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  this  at  $50  per  ton 
represents  a  yearly  dead  loss  of  $5,000. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  our  sulphuric  acid  mannfacturers  who 
do  not  give  this  matter  sufficient  attention,  and  who,  consequently 
can  make  no  real  profits  on  their  acid  productions. 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  61 

NITRATE  OF  POTASH,  commonly  called  saltpetre,  is  industrially 
produced  by  the  double  decomposition,  resulting  from  a  mixture  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  muriate  of  potash,  with  the  application  of  heat. 
Commercial  saltpetre  contains  10  to  12  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  from 
40  to  44  per  cent,  of  potash. 

It  is  soluble  in  three  times  its  weight  of  water  at  an  ordinary 
temperature. 

MURIATE  OP  POTASH  is,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  the  best 
form  in  which  to  introduce  potash,  either  directly  into  the  soil,  or 
as  a  constituent  in  a  compound  manure. 

When  freed  from  its  chloride  of  sodium,  sulphate  and  chloride  of 
magnesia,  which  always  accompany  it,  the  salt  contains  from  45  to 
48  per  cent,  of  pure  potash. 

It  is  soluble  in  five  times  its  weight  of  water,  and  has  a  salt  and 
bitter  taste. 

PHOSPHATE  OP  LIME. — The  most  readily  accessible  materials  for 
consumption  in  the  United  States,  are  the  phosphorites  of  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  and  the  apatites,  or  crystallized  phosphates,  of 
Canada. 

The  phosphorites  of  the  Charleston  basin  occur  in  the  form 
of  nodules,  bedded  in  the  clay  and  sand.  They  cover  an  immense 
area,  and  are  found  in  detached  deposits,  at  irregular  intervals,  all 
along  the  water-courses  of  the  country  ;  through  the  swamps  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  streams. 

They  are  generally  irregular  iri  form  and  color,  being  partially 
rounded  by  the  action  of  water,  and  of  a  yellow,  green,  or  brown  ; 
while  fossilized  remains  of  fish  are  always,  more  or  less,  intimately 
mixed  up  with  them. 

They  are  distinguished  in  commerce  by  the  names,  Land  and 
River  phosphates  —  the  first  being  the  softest  and  lightest  colored. 

They  are  dug  up  and  submitted  to  a  washing  process,  which 
frees  them  from  nearly  all  the  sand  and  clay,  and  when  thoroughly 
uiicd  after  this  operation,  are  ready  for  grinding,  and  present  the 
following  average  composition  : 


MODE  UN    HIGH    FARMING. 


Moisture 4.89 

Wall  r  of  combination 2.01 

*  Phosphoric  Acid 25.60 

Lime 37.19 

Magnesia 0.75 

Oxide  of  Iron  and  Alumina 9.1G 

Carbonic  Acid 4.09 

Sulphuric  Acid 1.77 

Chloride  of  Sodium 2.03 

Fluorine  and  loss 2.22 

Insoluble  and  Sandy  Matter 10.29 


3.10 

1.55 

2333 


100.00 


0.80 
8.70 
5.00 
2.00 
1.97 
2.14 
15.39 

100.00 


7.89 

1.57 

22.10 

37.18 

traces. 

10.02 

3.07 

i   a> 
'^  o    5.15 


100.00 


48.H 


*Equal  to  Tribasic  Phosphates  of  Lime 55.80  E0.85 

The  river  phosphates  are  generally  of  a  somewhat  higher  percent- 
age than  the  above,  and  now  furnish  the  bulk  of  our  supply.  They 
usually  contain  minute  quantities  of  iron  pyrites,  are  of  a  dark  gray, 
nearly  approaching  to  black  color,  and  are  extremely  hard  and 
difficult  to  reduce  to  an  impalpable  powder. 

When  dried  and  ready  for  shipment  the  general  average  result 
of  their  analysis  is  the  following  : 

1.  2.  3. 

Moisture O.G2 

Water  of  combination  and  loss  oa  ignition  . . .     3.09 

*Phosphoric  Acid 29.03 

Lime 45.27 

Magnesia Traces. 

Oxide  of  Iron  and  Alumina 9.10 

Carbonic  Acid 3.34 

Sulphuric  Acid, 

By  difference 3.42 

G.13 


Chloride  of  Sodium 
Fluorine, 


Insoluble  Sandy  Matters 100.00 


0.71 

0.56 

1.27 

2.80 

2r.30 

25.33 

39.22 

39.20 

0.35 

0.27 

936 

10.15 

3.18 

2.70 

G.70 

4.79 

11.91 

14.20 

100.00 

100.00 

*Equal  to  Tribusic  Phosphate  of  Lime 63.28 


59.50 


55.20 


They  are  mined  from  the  rivers  under  concessions  from  the  gov- 
ernment, in  consideration  of  certain  royalties  paid  into  the  State 
coffers,  for  every  ton  extracted  and  taken  away. 

The  deposits  arc  very  extensively  worked  throughout  the  entire 
year,  but  most  energy  is  displayed  during  the  summer  months,  when 
they  afford  employment  to  thousands  of  work-people. 


MODERN   HIGH    FARMING. 


63 


The  dredging  apparatus  ordinarily  employed  is  fitted  with 
washers  which  effect  the  separation  of  the  phosphate  from  the  sand 
and  other  extraneous  bodies,  while  being  raised  through  the  water. 

Both  qualities  of  these  phosphates,  when  finely  ground,  afford  an 
excellent  material  for  superphosphate  manufacture,  despite  their 
somewhat  heavy  percentage  in  iron  and  alumina,  and  their  large  pro 
portion  of  insoluble  matter. 

As  they  contain  very  little  carbonate  of  lime,  their  treatment 
entails  no  waste  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  they  possess  the  superiority 
over  many  other  phosphates,  when  properly  decomposed,  of  yield- 
ing up  all  their  phosphoric  acid  in  a  soluble  form. 

CANADIAN  PHOSPHATE  occurs  in  the  form  of  bottle-green  crystal- 
line masses,  more  or  less  associated  with  portions  of  the  gneissic 
rocks  or  mica  slates  which  surround  it  in  its  native  fissures.  It  is 
in  all  respects  a  mineral,  and  is  found  in  clearly  defined  veins  and 
cavities,  extending  sometimes  to  a  very  considerable  depth,  and  be- 
coming richer  in  their  yield  as  they  go  down. 

The  following  analyses  are  fairly  representative  of  its  general  com- 
position, and  have  been  selected  from  many  hundreds  made  by  our- 
selves and  differing  only  in  trifling  details: 

1 

Moisture  and  Water  of  combination 0.09 

*Phospboric  Acid 41.13 

Lime 53.70 

Carbonic  Acid 1.37 

Sulphuric  Acid traces 

Oxide  of  Iron 0.06 

Alumina 0.54 

Magnesia traces 

Fluorine 2.14 

Insoluble  Siliceous  matters. . .  . .  0.97 


2 

3 

0.13 

0.59 

37.63 

35.28 

50.95 

47.19 

l.GO 

1.18 

0.26 

traces 

1.12 

2.51 

0.96 

3.60 

traces 

traces 

4.07 

530 

3.28 

4.35 

100.00  100.00  100.00 

*Equal  to  Tribasic  Phosphates  of  Lime 89.65  82.05  76.90 

When  pure  it  is  a  fluor-apatite,  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime 
and  fluoride  of  calcium,  and  is  generally  presented  to  commerce  in 
the  rough,  in.  blocks  varying  in  weight,  from  one  to  several 
hundred  pounds,  of  a  beautiful  green  color  and  brittle  texture. 


G-4  MODERN    11 1U11    FARMING. 

It  is,  however,  as  the  foregoing  analyses  show,  uot  very  frequently 
met  with  in  a  high  state  of  purity,  but  generally  contains  certain 
portions  of  iron  and  alumina,  besides  being  mixed  up  with  quantr 
ties  of  an  inert  kind  of  ganguc,  from  which  its  separation  (by  hand 
work)  is  arduous  and  costly. 

These  phosphates  are  extremely  hard  and  difficult  to  grind,  and 
may  be  said  to  contain  no  carbonate  of  lime.  Their  percentage  of 
iron  and  alumina  is  not  sufficiently  high  to  militate  against  their  sat- 
isfactory decomposition,  but  what  causes  them  to  be  regarded  with 
disfavor,  is  their  variable,  but  always  considerable  proportion  of 
fluorine,  which,  upon  being  brought  into  contact  with  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  manufacturing  process,  generates  large  volumes  of  most 
irritating  and  poisonous  vapors  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 

The  great  inconvenience  and  danger  arising  from  this  cause,  can 
only  be  obviated  by  bringing  the  acid  to  bear  upon  the  mineral  and 
effecting  its  decomposition,  in  well-closed  mixers.  If  these  mixers 
are  provided  with  proper  ventilating  shafts,  to  carry  off  the  gases  as 
soon  as  they  are  set  free,  no  cause  for  apprehension  will  any  longer 
exist,  and  the  material  will  yield  the  most  satisfactory  results, 

A  large  majority  of  manure  producers  in  this  country  have,  how- 
ever, hesitated  to  make  the  needful  changes  in  their  plant,  and  have 
preferred  the  use  of  South  Carolina  phosphates,  as  offering  much 
less  difficulty  from  an  industrial,  and  yet  excellent  results  from  a 
commercial  point  of  view.  In  consequence  of  this  policy  the 
greater  portion  of  Canadian  apatites  have  always  been,  and  still  are, 
shipped  to  England,  whence  they  very  frequently  come  back  to 
America  as  superphosphates  of  lime.  It  is  to  be  devoutly  hoped 
that  the  rapid  progress  now  being  made  in  all  the  arts  throughout 
the  United  States,  will  shortly  induce  the  larger  manufacturers  to 
reconsider  their  policy  and  make  more  use  of  this  excellent  and  high 
grade  phosphate. 

Why  should  American  farmers  bear  the  enormous  loss  represented 
by  the  cost  of  freight  from  Montreal  to  English  ports,  and  from 
thence  back  again  to  their  own  ;  amounting  in  the  aggregate  on  the 
manufactured  article  to  a  total  of  seven  or  eight  dollars  per  ton  ? 


MODERN    HIGH    FARMING.  05 

If  the  use  of  chemical  immures  is  to  become  a  universal  institu- 
UOQ  and  a  "thing  of  course,"  they  must  be  placed  within  reach  of 
consumers,  at  the  lowest  possible  price  ;  because,  were  the  main- 
tenance or  increase  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  our  crops  to  be 
simply  counterbalanced  by  the  cost  of  the  fertilizers,  no  ultimate  ad- 
vantage could  accrue  from  their  application. 

The  mixture  of  finely  powdered  raw  phosphates  with  farm-yard 
manures,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  pointed  out  in  our  last  chapter, 
is  productive  of  excellent  results.  And  their  direct  application  in 
the  same  raw  state  to  lands  of  which  the  soils  contain  an  abundance 
of  sulphuric,  humic,  carbonic,  or  acetic  acid,  is  also  very  successful. 

In  each  case,  however,  an  impalpable  state  of  powder  and  extreme 
state  of  division  in  the  soil  are  absolutely  indispensable. 

Although  the  principal  sources  from  whence  phosphates  can  be 
most  economically  obtained  in  this  country  are  those  just  dealt  with, 
it  will  be  interesting  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  to  introduce  a  table 
of  analyses  of  the  different  qualities  and  forms  produced  and  used 
throughout  the  world.  (See  page  G6.) 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  in  all  cases  the  chemical  value  of 
these  bodies  is  determined  by  their  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  here  set  forth  an  approximate  trans- 
lation of  the  scientific  formula  by  which  the  composition  of  a  phos- 
phatic  body  is  ascertained. 

The  substance  destined  for  examination  is  first  treated  with 
boiling  nitric  or  muriatic  acids,  which  dissolve  all  its  active  ingredi- 
ents, the  parts  remaining  uudissolved  being  composed  principally 
of  sandy  and  siliceous  matter. 

The  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  iron,  alumina,  etc.,  etc.,  are  all  con- 
tained in  the  acid  solution  and  are  withdrawn  from  it  and  estimated, 
by  adding  to  it  other  substances  for  which  they  have  strong  affinities, 
and  with  which  they  form  insoluble  salts.  For  example,  if  we  add 
oxalic  acid  and  oxalate  of  ammonia,  they  will  immediately  combine 
with  the  lime,  to  form  oxalate  of  lime,  and  in  that  state  will  fall  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 


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MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 


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MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  67 

If  in  the  same  way  we  add  magnesia  and  ammonia,  the  phosphoric 
acid  will  at  once  fly  to  them,  and,  as  ammonia  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia, will  fall  to  the  bottom;  and  so  on,  until  one  after  the  other, 
we  have  secured  all  the  ingredients  which  the  solution  contained. 

The  ammonia-phosphate  of  magnesia  which  has  been  deposited 
as  a  sediment,  is  separated  from  the  liquid  by  passing  the  whole 
through  filtering  paper,  from  which,  after  it  has  become  dry,  the 
powder  left  behind  is  easily  collected. 

This  powder  is  then  submitted  to  the  most  intense  heat,  and  is 
thereby  transformed  into  calcined  or  pyro-phosphate  of  magnesia, 
the  object  of  the  burning  process  having  been,  to  drive  off  the 
ammonia  and  any  other  foreign  bodies,  which  have  not,  like  magne- 
sia-phosphate, the  property  of  resisting  extreme  temperatures. 

Pyro-phosphate  of  magnesia,  being  composed  of  known  parts  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  of  magnesia,  we  accurately  weigh  our  calcined 
product;  and,  supposing,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  its  weight  to  be 
fifty  grains,  we  immediately  know  that  the  substance  analyzed 
contains  thirty-two  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  by  a  similar 
system  of  calculation,  arrive  at  the  equivalent  of  this  quantity  in 
phosphate  of  lime. 

Before  quitting  the  subject  of  mineral  phosphates,  it  will  be  ad- 
visable to  mention  the  discovery  of  large  deposits  in  the  Island  of 
Alta  Velta,  near  San  Domingo,  of  a  mineral  which  was  at  first 
mistaken  for  phosphate  of  lime,  and  as  such,  shipped  in  considerable 
quantities  to  European  ports. 

Upon  complete  analysis,  it  was  found  to  be  phosphate  of  alumina 
and  iron,  with  very  little  lime,  and  a  huge  outcry  was  raised  against 
it  by  leading  London  analysts,  who  denounced  it*  as  of  no  value  to 
agriculture. 

The  cargoes  which  had  already  been  shipped  were  consequently 
refused  by  the  consignees  and  thrown  upon  the  market  at  very  low 
prices;  but  so  great  was  the  prejudice  against  them,  that  we  have 
never  heard  of  their  having  met  with  any  purchasers.  The  detailed 
composition  of  these  phosphates  is  shown  in  the  following  analysis, 
made  from  a  fair  and  well-selected  sample: 


G8  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

Moisture  .* 12.36 

Water  of  combination 4.13 

*Phos-i>horic  Acid 30.22 

Lim3 4.10 

Magnesia Trace*. 

Oxide  of  Iron 7.04 

Alumina 24.00 

Carbonic  Acid None. 

Sulphuric  Acid 1 " 

Fluorine Traces. 

Insoluble  Sandy  Matter 18.09 

100.00 
*Equal  to  65.87  per  cent,  of  tribasic  phosphate  of  lime. 

It  would  be  well  if  our  chemical  brethren  would  remember 
that  as  we  have  already  described  in  these  pages,  phosphates  are  in- 
variably found  in  our  vegetable  soils,  as  phosphates  of  peroxide  of 
iron  and  alumina,  and  that,  although  some  difficulty  may  attend 
their  decomposition  in  the  factory,  or  their  transformation  into 
chemical  manures,  they  would  be  extremely  valuable  in  the  raw 
state  —  if  very  finely  ground  —  as  a  direct  manure. 

The  fact,  however,  of  an  abundance  of  phosphate  of  lime  being 
always  obtainable  at  very  reasonable  prices,  has  interfered  with  a 
general  popularization  of  the  facts,  and  it  is  only  in  the  event  of  an 
increased  demand,  or  a  momentary  decrease  in  ordinary  sources  of 
supply,  that  our  prejudiced  friends  will  suddenly  discover  in  these 
phosphates  a  very  valuable  reserve  to  fall  back  upon. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SULPHUR ITS  OCCURRENCE   IN   NATURE THE  MINES  OF  SICILY 

THE    REFINING    PROCESS ICELAND    SOUFRIERES    AND 

SO  LF  AT  ARAB USE   OF   SULPHUR   IN   MANUFACTURE  PY- 
RITES   AND    HOW    THEY    OCCUR  ANALYTICAL    TABLES 

GENERAL    ANNUAL     CONSUMPTION  THE     MINES     OF     SPAIN 

DESCRIBED. 

The  practice  of  facilitating  the  solubility  of  phosphates  by  dis- 
solving bones  in  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid),  originated  with  Baron 
Licbig,  in  about  1851,  and  it  is  only  natural  that  the  same  idea 
should  have  been  applied  to  the  mineral  or  earthy  product. 

In  order  that  our  readers  may  thoroughly  understand  the  process 
of  decomposition,  to  which  phosphatic  materials  are  subjected  in 
the  manufacture  of  superphosphates  and  other  chemical  manures, 
it  will  be  necessary  and  useful  to  explain  what  sulphuric  acid  is, 
and  how  it  is  made. 

It  has  been  said,  and  been  said  truly,  that  the  prosperity  of  an 
industrial  country  is  to  be  judged  of  by  its  production  and  con- 
sumption of  sulphuric  acid;  and  as  it  forms  the  basis  of  all  chemi- 
cal industry,  and  is  largely  employed  in  nearly  every  important 
branch  of  manufacture,  the  reason  for  the  assertion  can  be  easily  un- 
derstood. 

As  its  name  implies,  it  is  derived  either  directly  from  the  distilla- 
tion of  sulphur  (brimstone),  or  from  the  burning  of  mineral  sul- 
phurets,  known  as  pyrites;  and  before  broaching  the  manufacturing 
question,  let  us  acquire  some  knowlege  of  these  raw  materials. 


70  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

SULPHUR  (or  BRIMSTONE)  is  found  in  nature  in  abundant  quanti- 
ties, and  may  even  be  said  to  exist  in  nearly  every  rock,  and  to  be 
closely  associated  with  all  mineral  ores,  copper,  silver,  zinc,  lead, 
tin,  iron,  etc. 

Its  abundance  in  copper  and  iron  ores  is  sometimes  sufficiently 
great  to  turn  them  into  sulphurets,  and  these  are,  to-day,  the  princi- 
pal sources  from  whence  sulphur  is  derived  for  acid  manufacture. 

The  chief  deposits  of  brimstone  are  found  in  Italy,  France,  Spain 
and  Greece,  but  those  of  the  first-named  country  are  by  far  the 
most  important,  and  have  hitherto  been  capable  of  furnishing  to 
the  whole  world  the  bulk  of  the  required  supply  ;  the  mines  of 
Sicily  alone  being  credited  with  a  production  of  250,000  tons  a 
year. 

In  its  raw  natural  state  it  is  amorphous,  and  of  a  yellowish 
brown  color,  being  associated  with  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum),  sul- 
phate of  barytes  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  working  of  the  mines  in  most  cases  is  conducted  by  means 
of  shafts  or  pits,  sunk  in  the  deposit,  and  are  most  primitive  and 
totally  devoid  of  modern  machinery  or  appliances.  They  are  pro- 
vided with  ladders  on  each  side,  and  up  these  the  mineral  is  carried 
in  small  wicker  baskets,  on  the  backs  of  children,  their  loads  vary- 
ing from  thirty  to  seventy  pounds,  according  to  their  age  and 
strength. 

Serious  accidents  frequently  occur  to  the  men  engaged  below, 
through  the  falling  of  these  baskets  before  they  reach  the  surface. 

Near  the  mouth  of  each  pit  are  built  a  series  of  kilns,  like  lime 
kilns,  calculated  to  hold  from  300  to  400  tons  of  sulphur  at  one 
charge.  When  the  children  arrive  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  they 
pitch  the  contents  of  their  baskets  into  these  kilns  until  they  are 
quite  full,  when  the  fire  is  applied,  and  the  brimstone,  reduced  by 
the  heat  to  a  liquid  form,  falls  into  a  sort  of  basin  at  the  bottom. 

From  the  basin  it  is  run  off  into  moulds,  whence  it  emerges  in 
blocks  of  a  reddish  brick  color. 

In  this  preliminary  process  of  separating  the  sulphur  from  its 
grosser  impurities,  a  serious  loss  of  weight  is  incurred,  amounting 


MODEKtf   HIGH   FAKMING.  71 

in  some  cases  to  about  one-third  of  the  bulk,  and  arising  from  the 
escape  of  the  sulphurous  acid  gas. 

The  rough  product  thus  obtained  is  sometimes  shipped  without 
any  further  refining,  and  is  worth  twenty  dollars  per  ton  ;  but  in 
many  cases  it  is  further  transformed  into  pure  sulphur  of  a  high- 
er value,  by  sublimation  and  condensation  in  iron  retorts. 

In  the  volcanic  district  of  Reykjalid,  in  the  North  of  Iceland,  a 
series  of  sulphur  springs  are  met  with,  which  afford  a  most  inter- 
esting study. 

They  are  of  two  kinds  :  those  on  the  mountain  slope  consisting 
of  hot  gases,  which  arise  from  the  earth,  charged  with  sulphuric 
acid,  hydrogen,  sulphurous  and  aqueous  vapors,  and  undergo  de- 
composition by  coming  into  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  The 
others  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  being  springs  of  black  and  boil- 
ing mud. 

Mr.  C.  S.  Forbes  in  his  interesting  volume  on  Iceland,  her  Vol- 
canoes and  Glaciers,  gives  a  very  graphic  description  of  some  of 
these  springs,  and  in  one  of  his  chapters,  he  says  : 

"  In  the  valley  beyond,  about  fifty  feet  beneath  us,  lay  a  large 
cauldron,  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  in  full  blast,  burning  and  seeth- 
ing, with  boiling  blue  mud  that  spluttered  up  in  occasional  jets, 
five  or  six  feet  in  height,  diffusing  clouds  of  vapor  in  every  direction. 
If  a  constant  calm  prevailed  here,  instead  of  ever-varying  gales,  the 
sulphur  sublimated  from  these  sources  would  be  precipitated  in 
regular  banks  ;  as  it  is,  it  hardly  ever  falls  twenty-four  hours  in  the 
same  direction,  the  wind  blowing  it  hither  and  thither,  capriciously 
distributing  the  sulphur  shower  in  every  quarter. 

"  Such,  with  little  variation,  save  in  locality,  were  the  numerous 
Soufrieres  and  Solfataras  that  we  visited,  and  they  extend  over  a 
space  of  twenty-five  miles.  The  riches  of  the  district  consist  not  so 
much  in  these  numerous  crusts  of  almost  pure  sulphur,  as  in  the 
beds  of  what  I  must  be  permitted  to  term  sulphur  earth,  which  are 
promiscuously  scattered  in  all  directions,  ranging  from  six  inches 
to  three  feet  in  thickness,  and  containing  from  50  to  60  per  cent, 
of  pure  sulphur." 


72  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Until  about  fifty  years  ago,  the  custom  prevailed  in  Europe, 
which  largely  prevails  in  this  country,  of  manufacturing  the  acid 
exclusively  from  sulphur;  but  in  1838,  the  king  of  Sicily  was  suffi- 
ciently ill-advised  to  grant  a  monopoly  of  the  Sicilian  sulphur  trade 
to  a  commercial  firm  in  Marseilles,  France,  and  the  consequence  of 
this,  as  of  all  other  monopolies,  was  to  create  for  the  article  an  un- 
fair and  fictitious  value. 

From  twenty-five  it  was  advanced  to  seventy  dollars  per  ton,  and 
thus  all  large  manufacturers  were  induced  to  seek  for  their  raw  ma- 
terials in  other  directions. 

Some  idea  of  the  energy  displayed  in  the  endeavor  to  find  this 
required  substitute,  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  mentioned  in  one  oi 
Baron  Liebig's  letters,  in  which  he  says  that  during  the  short  ex- 
istence of  the  Sicilian  monopoly,  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
patents  were  taken  out  in  Europe  for  the  production  of  sulphuric 
acid  Irom  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  the  whole  of  which  were,  prac- 
tically speaking,  industrial  failures. 

That  the  substitute  was  eventually  found,  we  are  presently  going 
to  see,  and  brimstone  is  now  principally  used  in  making  gunpowder, 
and  for  bleaching,  and  medical  purposes ;  although  if,  in  price 
and  other  advantages,  it  can  ever  vie  with  pyrites,  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  again  be  the  basis  of  the  manufacturing  process. 

PYRITES  are  sulphurets  of  antimony,  arsenic,  cobalt,  nickel,  cop- 
per and  iron,  the  two  last  being  chiefly  used  for  sulphuric  acid 
manufacture.  They  occur  in  immense  deposits  all  over  the  world, 
and  mines  are  now  in  active  work  on  a  large  and  continually  in- 
creasing scale  in  the  United  States,  England,  Wales,  Ireland,  France, 
Belgium,  Germany,  Norway,  Sweden,  Spain,  Portugal  and  Canada. 

The  annual  quantity  of  pyrites  consumed  in  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Germany  combined,  is  estimated  at 
1;750,000  tons,  of  which  Great  Britain  alone  takes  over  850,000 
tons,  and  the  United  States  175,000,  the  other  two  countries  sharing 
the  balance  in  almost  equal  proportions. 

The  following  table  of  analyses  will  show  the  average  composi- 
tion of  those  ores,  which  have  hitherto  been  found  most  suitable. 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 


73 


there  being  many  which,  on  account  of  their  large  percentage  of 
arsenic  are  looked  upon  with  general  disfavor. 


Sulphur 

Spanish. 

W 

n 

"5 
P 
P 

M 

B 

"S. 

p4 

34.34 

32.20 
0.80 
0.91 
1.32 
0.40 
29.00 

1.03 

1 

P 
p 

00 

5T 

E3* 

Canadian. 

Virginian. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

47.50 
41.92 
4.21 
0.33 
0.22 
1.52 
3.40 

0.90 

49.90 
43.55 
3.10 
0.47 
0.35 
0.93 

I  2.70 

49.07 
44.28 
2.75 
0.38 
None. 

2.34 
1.18 

42.80 
36.70 
None. 
0.20 
0.40 
0.92 
8.86 

10.12 

47.41 
41.78 
193 
2.11 
2.00 
None. 
3.93 

0.84 

45.60 
38.52 
None. 
Trace 
6.00 
0.64 
8.70 

0.54 

38.05 
42.80 
1.50 
None. 
None. 

12.16 
5.49 

40.00 
35.00 
5.25 
None. 
3.00 
0.35 
11.90 

4.50 

48.02 
42.01 
None. 

" 
7.60 

2.37 

Iron 

Copper  
Arsenic 

Zinc  
Lead. 

Silica  (Sand,  etc.).. 
Oxygen,  Alumina, 
Lime  and   other 
Matters  not   de 
termined. 

1UO.OO  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.  OO'  100.  00 

100.00100.00 

As  Spain  may  be  considered,  not  only  the  principal  source  of 
present  supply,  but  an  inexhaustible  field  whence  we  may  expect 
to  draw  any  quantity  required  during  the  next  few  centuries,  we 
shall  devote  ourselves  to  a  short  description  of  the  Spanish  mines, 
regarding  them  as  typical  in  all  important  points,  of  pyrites  ore 
deposits. 

They  are  situated  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Andalusia,  at  a 
distance  of  sixty  or  seventy  miles  from  the  port  of  Huelva,  whence 
they  are  principally  shipped  for  their  different  destinations.  The 
surrounding  rocks  belong  to  the  "  lower  Silurian  "  series,  and  are  of 
a  schisty  or  slatey  nature,  intermixed  here  and  there  with  green- 
stone and  felspatic  rocks  of  various  descriptions. 

The  existence  of  these  sulphurous  copper  ores  has  been  known 
from  time  immemorial,  they  having  been  exploited  first  by  the 
early  Celts,  then  very  extensively  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  in  due 
course  by  the  Romans,  who  worked  them  for  upwards  of  three  hun- 
dred years,  and  left  behind  them  traces  of  the  gigantic  nature  of 
their  operations,  which  are  still  to  be  seen. 

When  the  Roman  Empire  had  fallen,  and  while  the  Moors  were 
in  possession  of  the  country,  the  mines  were  abandoned,  and  indeed, 


74  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

were  left  unworked,  until  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
when  an  enterprising  Swede  endeavored  to  turn  them  to  account. 

The  want,  however,  of  sufficient  skill  and  capital,  combined 
with  the  difficulties  of  transport  and  the  political  troubles,  which 
never  ceased  to  convulse  the  country,  caused  all  attempts  to  end 
in  failure,  until  in  1873  the  Spanish  government  decided  to  dispose 
of  the  properties  by  selling  them  to  the  company  known  as  the 
Rio  Tinto,  limited. 

The  pyrites  deposits  are  somewhat  irregular  and  occur  in  lenticu- 
lar shaped  masses.  There  are  three  important  lodes — the  South,  the 
Dionisio  and  the  North  ;  the  mineral  resources  of  all  three  being  so 
immense  as  to  be  considered  by  the  best  authorities  inexhaustible. 

The  principal  opening  is  that  existing  in  the  South  lode,  which  is 
1,500  yards  long,  100  yards  deep  and  200  yards  in  breadth,  and  an- 
nually yields  about  700, OCO  tons  of  ore,  the  composition  of  which  is 
shown  in  our  analytical  table  as  Spanish  No.  2. 

Before  this  great  lode  could  be  worked,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
remove  nearly  four  million  tons  of  earth,  or  overburden. 

Beneath  this  immense  bed  of  ore,  which  some  engineers  have  es- 
timated as  containing  about  200  million  tons,  are  extensi\e  under- 
ground workings  reached  by  a  tunnel  already  nearly  1,000  yards  in 
length.  When  this  tunnel  attains  a  length  of  about  three  miles,  it 
will  connect  and  open  out  the  Dionisio  lode,  upon  which  a  shaft 
has  already  been  sunk  in  the  centre. 

The  great  value  of  these  sulphur  ores  is  not  confined  to  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid,  but,  by  the  development  of  certain  chemi- 
cal bye-processes,  has  assumed  considerable  importance  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  precious  metals  ;  thus,  from  Hie  enormous  amount  of 
pyrites  she  annually  consumes,  Great  Britain  extracts  in  addition  to 
the  acid,  about  18,000  tons  of  pure  copper,  300,000  ounces  of  silver, 
1,800  ounces  of  Gold  and  over  400, OCO  tons  of  iron  ore. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

SULPHURIC    ACID    MANUFACTURE  SKETCH    OP   ITS    PAST  HISTORY 

PYRITES  BURNING  GLOVER'S    TOWERS HINTS  ON 

THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF   LEADEN  CHAMBERS CHEMISTRY  OF 

THE   PROCESS DENITRATION GAY-LUSSAC   TOWERS 

GENERAL   REMARKS. 

Until  Mr.  Rod  well  published  his  book,  "  The  Birth  of  Chemistry," 
we  had  always  been  led  to  believe  that  the  discovery  of  sulphuric 
acid  was  due  to  Basil  Valentine,  but  we  have  now  reason  to  suppose 
that  it  was  known  long  before  his  time. 

Pliny  teaches  us  that  sulphur  was  used  for  making  matches  and 
that  sulphurous  acid  was  employed  for  bleaching  purposes,  and 
produced  by  burning  the  mineral  in  contact  with  the  air.  Pyrites 
were  also  well  known,  and  owe  the  origin  of  their  name  to  their  hav- 
ing been  used  for  lighting  fires  by  means  of  the  sparks  which  they 
emit  when  struck  by  steel. 

In  the  8th  century  an  Arab  named  Geber  made  sulphuric  acid 
from  the  distillation  of  alum,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century, 
Basil  Valentine  commenced  to  manufacture  it  by  submitting  green 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  iron)  to  distillation  and  made  use  of  it  in  various 
processes  and  dissolutions. 

After  his  time,  several  of  the  old  chemists  were  engaged  in  in- 
vestigating its  properties  and  endeavoring  to  find  out  its  true  chem- 
ical composition,  and  among  these,  Paracelcus,  the  great  Swiss 
alchemist  who  died  in  1541,  declared,  as  the  result  of  his  labors,  that 
it  was  "nitre  air  mixed  with  sulphur.'' 


7G  MODERN"  HIGH  FARMING. 

It  was,  however,  reserved  for  one  Gerard  Dornaeus  to  describe 
with  tolerable  exactitude  what  it  really  was,  and  this  he  did  in  a 
pamphlet  published  in  the  year  1570. 

English  makers  originally  prepared  their  acid  by  burning  cop- 
peras in  brick  ovens  at  a  high  temperature,  and  condensing  the 
vapors  which  distilled  off,  as  an  impure  oil  of  vitriol,  the  com- 
mercial value  of  which  was  one  thousand  dollars  per  ton.  This 
process  gave  way  to  the  use  of  sulphur  and  nitre,  burnt  together  in 
enormous  glass  globes  and  concentrated  by  boiling  in  glass  retorts, 
the  product  being  called  "oil  of  vitriol  made  by  the  bell." 

Passing  on  by  successive  stages,  which  we  need  not  stop  at,  we 
arrive  at  the  year  1746,  and  find  the  first  leaden  chamber  erected  in 
that  year  in  Birmingham,  by  Messrs.  Roebuck  and  Garbett,  the  pro- 
portions of  raw  material  employed  being  seven  or  eight  pounds  of 
sulphur  to  one  pound  of  saltpetre.  This  mixture  was  placed  upon 
lead  plates  standing  in  water  within  the  chamber,  and  was  ignited 
by  means  of  a  red-hot  iron  bar,  through  a  sliding  panel  in  the  wall. 

Shortly  after  this  time  came  the  introduction  of  a  separate  apart- 
ment, for  burning  the  sulphur  in  a  current  of  air,  which  was  regu- 
lated by  a  slide  moving  in  the  iron  furnace-door  ;  the  vapors  being 
taken  off  through  the  roof  into  the  adjoining  chamber. 

Progressively  and  finally  we  have  arrived  at  our  present  position, 
and  this  will  naturally  continue  to  be  improved  upon  as  chemistry 
moves  onward.  The  principal  points  in  sulphuric  acid  production, 
requiring  consideration  by  our  contemporary  industrials  may  be 
thus  summed  up  : 

A. — What  kind  of  furnace  or  burner  is  best  calculated  to  effect 
the  complete  combustion  of  the  pyrites,  including  "smalls  ?" 

B. — What  are  the  best  dimensions  to  accord  to  the  leaden  cham- 
bers in  which  the  combination  takes  place  ? 

C. — How  to  obtain  the  maximum  results  from  the  sulphur  ore 
at  a  minimum  expenditure  of  nitrate  of  soda  ? 

The  manufacturer  who  has  satisfactorily  solved  all  these  problems, 
may  be  said  to  walk  in  the  very  front  rank,  and  has  no  competition 
to  fear  from  any  quarter. 


HIGH  FARMING.  77 

The  best  form  of  burner  we  have  ever  seen  is  that  introduced 
by  Mr.  Spence,  of  England,  the  fire-brick  hearth  of  which  is  about 
40  feet  long  by  6  inches  wide.  It  is  fired  from  below,  and  receives 
the  necessary  air  through  an  opening  in  the  front,  regulated  by  a 
damper.  This  oven  will  successfully  burn  pyrites  in  fine  powder, 
perfect  combustion  being  ensured  by  introducing  them  at  the  op- 
posite end  to  the  fire  and  gradually  pushing  them  to  the  hottest 
parts.  When  once  they  have  become  fully  ignited,  no  further  fuel 
of  any  kind  is  required,  as  they  will  continue  to  bum  until  all  the 
sulphur  is  exhausted. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  flue  or  chimney  of  these  ovens,  are  placed 
cast-iron  "nitre  pots"  containing  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  soda  and 
sulphuric  acid,  and  evolving  dense  nitric  acid  vapors.  Under  the 
combined  influence  of  the  intense  heat  and  the  current  of  air  passing 
through  the  furnace,  the  pyrites  undergo  total  decomposition  ;  the 
sulphur  being  driven  off  in  the  form  of  vaporous  sulphurous  acid, 
and  the  iron  being  transformed  into  oxide.  When  the  sulphurous 
vapors  arrive  at  the  flue,  they  meet  with  those  emanating  from  the 
nitre  pots,  and  the  two,  immediately  combining,  pass  off  through 
large  conductors  built  of  lead  and  lined  with  brick,  known  as 
"  Glover's  towers,"  into  large  leaden  chambers,  where  they  are 
brought  into  contact  with  a  considerable  body  of  steam. 

These  chambers  are  constructed  entirely  of  lead,  weighing  from 
six  to  seven  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  are  generally  put  up  in  sets 
of  three,  connected  by  syphon  and  cistern  arrangements  for  drawing 
off  and  storing  the  acid,  as  it  is  made.  They  are  built  upon  a  frame- 
work of  timber,  supported  by  iron  columns,  and  all  round  their 
sides  are  placed  small  glass  windows,  through  which  the  various 
colors  assumed  by  the  vapors,  as  the  manufacturing  process  devel- 
opes  itself,  may  be  plainly  seen.  At  regular  intervals  between  these 
windows,  are  found  leaden  syphons,  which  dip  into  small  leaden 
tanks  within  the  chamber,  and  permit  of  samples  of  the  acid  being 
drawn  as  required. 

Endless  discussion  has  taken,  and  continues  to  take  place  concern- 
ing the  best  size  to  be  adopted  for  a  chamber. 


78  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Our  own  opinion  is  that  those  which  are  125  to  150  feet  long,  20 
to  25  feet  wide,  and  from  12  to  15  feet  high,  best  answer  the  require- 
ments—  it  being  necessary  to  have  them  large  for  very  important 
reasons  ;  first,  because  of  the  bulk  of  the  gases  which  enter,  and  the 
necessity  for  their  coming  into  direct  contact ;  and,  second,  because 
the  air  only  contains  in  every  hundred,  21  volumes  of  available  oxygen. 

Upon  meeting  with  the  steam,  the  sulphurous  vapors  combine 
with  certain  portions  of  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  immediately 
become  a  liquid  and  tangible  body  —  known  as  sulphuric  acid,  while 
the  nitric  acid  vapors,  casting  off  all  their  hydrogen,  unite  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  and  become  nitric  peroxide. 

The  sulphuric  acid  falls  to  the  floor  of  the  chamber,  and  the  ni- 
tric peroxide  passes  out  at  the  end  opposite  to  that  by  which  it  en- 
tered, and  is  conducted  into  absorbing  columns  known  as  "Gay 
Lussac"  towers,  where  it  is  absorbed  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  and,  conducted  by  a  complicated  process  back  to  the  regions 
of  the  nitre  pots,  where  it  assumes  its  original  form,  and  thus 
is  continually  utilized  over  again. 

It  is  on  the  good  and  careful,  or  faulty  working  of  this  pro- 
cess of  denitration  that  depends  the  saving  or  the  loss  in  the  consump- 
tion of  nitrate  of  soda  to  which  we  have  already  alluded  in  a  former 
chapter,  and  it  has  ever  been  the  greatest  difficulty  with  which  chem- 
ists have  had  to  deal.  Without  dwelling  upon  the  various  old-fash- 
ioned methods  still  in  use  in  many  factories,  we  will  endeavor  to  give 
a  rough  outline  of  that  which  is  now  generally  looked  upon  as 
most  successful. 

The  "Gay -Lussac"  columns,  to  which  we  have  alluded,  are 
named  after  the  distinguished  French  chemist  who  invented  them 
some  forty  years  ago,  and  are  high  and  narrow  leaden  towers  packed 
with  small  lumps  of  coke  and  supported  on  a  framework  of  timber. 

The  nitric  peroxide  and  the  other  vapors  which  issue 
from  the  chambers  are  led  into  these  towers  through  openings 
at  the  bottom,  and  are  met  in  their  ascent  by  a  current  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  flowing  in  a  small  stream  from  a  cistern  placed 
over  each  tower  and  pumped  up  thither  by  a  small  forcing  engine. 


MODEKN   HIGH   FAKMING.  79 

This  acid  runs  through  the  coke,  and  without  chemical  action, 
absorbs  the  peroxide  of  nitrogen  and  carries  it  downwards,  allowing 
any  other  gases  to  pass  on  to  the  flue  whence  they  escape  into 
the  air. 

The  concentrated  nitro-sulphuric  acid  is  weakened  during  its  on- 
ward course  by  the  introduction  of  newly  made  acid  from  the 
chambers,  and  in  this  state  passes  into  the  "  Glover's  towers "  and 
meets  upon  its  entry  the  vapors  proceeding  from  the  kiln  at  a 
temperature  of  about  700°  Fahrenheit. 

The  immediate  effect  resulting  from  this  encounter  is  the 
following : 

The  sudden  contact  with  such  intense  heat,  at  once  concentrates 
the  acid  to  a  density  of  150°  Twaddle,  with  a  great  evolution  of 
steam. 

The  peroxide  of  nitrogen  is  seized  upon  with  avidity  by  the  sul- 
phurous acid  vapors  and  carried  with  the  steam  into  the  leaden 
chambers. 

The  concentrated  acid  falls  into  a  reservoir  below,  whence  it  is 
returned  by  the  forcing  pump  to  the  Gay-Lussac  towers  to  serve 
over  again. 

It  will  be  seen  that  if  this  process  be  thoroughly  carried  out,  not 
only  must  there  be  a  vast  economy  of  nitre,  but  all  the  necessary 
strong  acid  for  the  Gay-Lussac  towers  is  produced  without  the 
slightest  expenditure  of  fuel  for  its  concentration. 

The  cost  of  building  leaden  chambers  being  very  considerable, 
it  is  only  natural  that  many  attempts  should  have  been  made  to  con- 
struct them  from  cheaper  materials ;  we  have  therefore  witnessed 
many  trials  of  earthenware,  stone,  slate,  glass  and  gutta  percha,  all 
of  which  have  failed,  owing  to  the  rapid  manner  in  which  the  acid 
has  destroyed  them. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  consumed  in  this  country 
about  450  tons  of  pyrites  every  day,  and  that  the  total  yearly  pro- 
duction of  sulphuric  acid  is  about  600,000  tons,  of  which  about  350,000 
are  made  from  sulphur. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

SUPERPHOSPHATES- UNCERTAINTY     OF     THEIR     COMPOSITION 

THEIR    MANUFACTURE     DESCRIBED HOW     TO  MANIPULATE 

WHEN     MADE -NATURE     OF     THE    DECOMPOSITION    PROCESS 

EXPLANATION    OF     THE     LOSS    IN     WEIGHT WHAT     IS 

SOLUBLE   PHOSPHATE  ? DISCUSSION   OF  ITS  MERITS  IN  THE 

FIELD ITS  ACTION   IN   THE  SOIL NECESSITY  FOR  CARE- 
FUL   ANALYSIS    MADE    FURTHER  MANIFEST PRECIPITATED 

PHOSPHATES THEIR     MANUFACTURE THEIR      VIRTUES 

AND     SUPERIORITY USE     OF     COMPLETE      MANURES    WITH 

EXAMPLES      AND       STATISTICS REMARKS     ON     HOME-MADE 

CHEMICAL  MANURES. 

The  process  of  superphosphate  manufacture,  whether  it  be  from 
bones  or  mineral  phosphates,  is  neither  a  very  complicated  nor  dif- 
ficult one,  but  it  requires  a  certain  amount  of  chemical  knowledge 
and  experience  which  the  majority  of  those  concerned  in  it  do  not 
possess  ;  and  hence  it  is,  that  no  article  in  the  market  is  more  varia- 
ble, both  in  its  physical  condition  and  chemical  composition. 

Nor  can  this  remain  a  source  of  surprise,  when  we  remember 
that  each  manufacturer  adopts  some  peculiar  system  of  his  own, 
and  that  no  two  chemical  factories  bear  any  resemblance  to  each 
other. 

Like  every  growing  industry,  it  has  been  invaded  by  capitalists, 
who  have  seen  in  it  a  possibility  of  realizing  large  interest  on  their 
investment,  and  who,  devoid  of  even  elementary  true  knowledge, 
have  begun  producing  manures  without  the  aid  derived  from  prac- 
tice and  observation. 


MODERK  HIGH 

There  are  consequently  huge  quantities  of  superphosphates,  con- 
stantly foisted  upon  the  farmer,  which,  made  in  ignorance,  purchased 
in  ignorance,  and  used  in  ignorance,  sometimes  produce  satisfactory 
results,  but  more  frequently  give  no  proportionate  or  immediate  re- 
turn for  the  money  they  have  cost. 

If  a  thousand  tons  of  phosphate  of  lime  be  given  to  one  manufact- 
urer, he  will  transform  it  into  a  fine  and  dry  acid  phosphate,  in 
which  every  particle  of  phosphoric  acid  has  been  made  available; 
and  if  the  very  same  quantity  of  the  same  material  be  entrusted  to 
his  next-door  neighbor —  who  to  the  uninitiated  possesses  the  same 
facilities — he  may  very  possibly  turn  out  a  moist,  pasty  substance, 
in  which  more  than  half  the  phosphate  will  be  found  insoluble. 

As  the  readers  for  whom  these  pages  are  written  are  not  supposed 
to  be  producers,  but  consumers  of  manures,  we  shall  not  attempt  to 
discuss  the  reasons  for  the  unfortunate  lack  of  homogeneity;  but 
shall  merely  sketch  out  the  process  by  which  superphosphates 
should  be  made,  if  they  are  to  fulfill  the  conditions  required  by  the 
advocates  of  their  application. 

Assuming  ourselves  to  be  dealing  with  the  manufacture  on  a 
large  scale,  and  in  connection  with  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid, 
the  first  step  to  be  taken  is  the  reduction  of  the  raw  material  to 
a  powder,  rivaling  in  degree  the  finest  wheaten  flour. 

Various  more  or  less  efficient  systems  of  pulverization  have  been 
introduced  and  adopted,  but  it  will  serve  no  useful  purpose  to 
describe  them,  the  form  of  implement  being  of  small  importance 
providing  the  object  is  attained. 

The  finely  ground  material  is  generally  turned  directly  into  sacks, 
weighed  by  mechanical  agency,  and  laid  aside  ready  for  use. 

The  mixture  with  the  acid  is  performed  in  a  commodious  shed, 
made  to  communicate  with  a  high  chimney  or  shaft,  so  as  to  carry 
off  the  noxious  vapors  of  fluoric,  silicic  and  carbonic  acids  and 
chlorine  which  are  always  more  or  less  evolved  by  all  phosphates 
during  the  reaction.  In  the  centre  of  the  floor  of  this  shed,  should 
be  built,  with  a  good  foundation,  a  strong  brick-work  shell,  divided 
into  four  or  six  chambers  or  dens. 


8Z  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Each  den  should  be  about  12  feet  square  and  15  to  20  feet  high, 
and  must  communicate  with  the  shaft  or  chimney,  by  means  of  a 
good-sized  opening,  situated  near  the  top,  while  the  air-tight  iron 
doors  by  which  they  are  entered  must  slide  easily,  when  pushed 
backwards  or  forwards. 

Upon  the  top  of  each  den  is  fitted  a  mixer  of  cylindrical  shape, 
3  feet  in  diameter  and  4  feet  high,  made  of  lead,  and  encased  in  a 
strong  wooden  frame,  with  a  movable  bottom  or  trap.  It  must  be 
provided  with  a  large  hopper  or  feeder,  and  possess  a  revolving  axle 
fitted  with  arms  or  spirals. 

Running  into  each  mixer  from  the  top,  under  the  hopper,  is  a 
leaden  pipe  fitted  with  a  glass  stop-cock' communicating  with  a  tank 
placed  directly  overhead,  and  prearranged  by  mechanical  appliances 
to  let  out  only  a  calculated  quantity  of  liquid  for  each  batch.  This 
tank  communicates  in  its  turn,  with  the  acid  chambers  from  which, 
when  emptied,  it  is  automatically  replenished. 

The  phosphate  is  either  brought  forward  from  the  mill  in  buckets, 
by  what  are  known  as  Jacob's  ladders,  or  wheeled  up  an  inclined 
plane  and  emptied  into  the  hoppers  of  the  mixer,  where,  the  acid 
tap  being  turned  on,  the  powder  and  the  liquid  work  into  the  drum 
together. 

The  agitators  are  allowed  to  revolve  with  swiftness  and  energy  for 
about  five  minutes,  when,  the  sliding  bottom  of  the  mixer  being 
withdrawn,  the  whole  contents  in  the  form  of  a  thick  mud  are  al- 
lowed to  drop  from  the  drum  into  the  den. 

As  the  acid  in  the  leaden  chambers  is  frequently  found  to  be  de- 
posited in  layers  of  different  strength,  care  must  always  be  taken  to 
test  and  thoroughly  mix  it  before  allowing  it  to  enter  the  tank  from 
which  the  phosphate  mixers  are  supplied,— a  want  of  uniformity 
in  this  direction  being  generally,  if  not  always,  attended  with  loss 
and  disappointment.  At  the  end  of  24  hours  the  doors  of  the  dens 
may  be  opened,  and,  if  the  proportions  of  the  raw  material  have 
been  properly  calculated,  the  superphosphate  will  then  be  sufficiently 
hard  to  allow  of  its  removal  with  the  shovel. 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  83 

The  transformation  undergone  by  the  mineral  will  be  understood, 
by  calling  to  mind  that  phosphates  of  lime  are  tribasic,  that  is  to 
say,  composed  of  three  parts  of  lime  to  one  part  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  that  in  this  state  they  are  totally  insoluble  in  pure 
water. 

When  the  sulphuric,  which  is  the  strongest  acid,  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  powder,  it  drives  away  all  the  carbonic,  fluoric  and 
silicic  acids,  and,  depriving  the  phosphoric  acid  of  two  of  its  equiv- 
alents of  lime,  forms  them  into  sulphate  (gypsum).  The  phosphoric 
acid,  thus  left  with  only  one  equivalent,  becomes  mono,  or  rneta- 
phosphate,  which  is  soluble  in  water.  It  follows  from  this  that 
unless  a  sufficiently  large  proportion  of  sulphuric  acid  be  used  to 
completely  effect  this  transformation,  a  certain  quantity  of  the  phos- 
phates will  retain  their  primitive  tribasic  state,  and  be  shown  as 
insoluble  when  the  manufactured  article  is  submitted  to  analysis. 

As  a  final  result  of  the  above  chemical  decomposition,  the  differ- 
ence in  the  weight  of  the  raw  materials  and  the  manufactured 
product  will  be  considerable,  but  should,  nevertheless,  not  exceed 
G^  or  7  per  cent.  This  loss,  however,  chiefly  arises  from  the 
disappearance  of  the  gaseous  elements  driven  away  by  the  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  in  no  way  affects  the  quantity  of  phosphoric 
acid.  Thus,  for  example,  presuming  the  proportions  used,  to  have 
been  200  pounds  each  of  sulphuric  acid  and  tribasic  phosphate  of 
lime,  we  should  find  the  weight  of  the  superphosphate  to  be  372 
pounds,  and  that  of  the  mono-phosphate  to  be  equivalent  to  120 
pounds  of  tribasic  phosphate  of  lime,  or  rather  more  than  30  per 
cent. 

Farmers  believe  the  word  "  soluble  "  to  mean  that  the  acid  phos- 
phates, when  put  into  the  ground,  at  once  dissolve,  and  hence  that 
their  use  is  much  more  advantageous  than  that  of  phosphates  in 
their  raw  state. 

The  time  has  come  for  a  correction  of  this  misapprehension  and 
for  a  recognition  of  the  true  phenomenon  ;  because,  if  farmers  are  to 
be  scientific,  they  must  at  least  understand  something  of  the  elemen- 
tary chemistry  of  their  operations. 


84  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

We  have  already  seen  liow  most  of  the  ingredients  placed  in  the 
soil  are  absorbed  and  made  available  for  plant  food.  It  will  there- 
fore be  unnecessary  to  add  that  none  of  the  manures  are  assimilated 
in  the  form  in  which  they  are  introduced. 

Thus  acid  phosphate,  sold  as  soluble,  and  found  upon  analysis  to 
answer  the  required  test,  simply  means  that,  so  long  as  the  sulphuric 
acid  maintains  possession  of  the  lime  it  has  taken  from  the  phosphoric 
acid,  the  latter  has  only  one  base,  which  its  own  acidity  enables  it 
to  dissolve  when  immersed  in  the  water  ;  but  place  these  matters  in 
the  ground  —  where  the  carbonates  are  in  excess  — and  the  sulphuric 
acid  is  at  once  overpowered  and  the  phosphoric  acid  set  free. 

The  latter  element,  being  unable  to  exist  in  nature  in  a  free  state, 
or  in  any  other  than  a  tribasic  form,  unites  once  more  with  the  lime 
and  iron  of  the  soil,  and  so  at  once  practically  reassumes  the  same 
chemical  form  it  originally  wore  when  tipped  into  the  mixers  at 
the  factory. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  under  these  circumstances,  whether 
it  is  of  any  use  continuing  the  employment  of  acid,  soluble,  or  super- 
phosphate, and  whether  it  would  not  be  wiser  to  at  once  adopt  the 
direct  application  of  the  raw  material  ?  Some  chemists  having 
declared  that  young  rootlets  are  frequently  destroyed  by  the  cor- 
rosive action  of  the  sulphuric  acid.  ( ?) 

The  original  idea  of  mixing  the  acid  with  the  phosphates  in  order 
to  render  them  more  easily  assimilable,  arose  from  the  impossibility 
of  reducing  either  bones  or  mineral  phosphates  to  such  a  high  state 
of  division  and  disintegration,  as  to  make  them  easy  to  grapple  with 
and  decompose  by  the  chemical  elements  in  the  soil. 

The  whole  theory  of  Liebig,  therefore,  was,  that  what  could  not 
be  done  mechanically,  chemical  means  could  easily  effect.  And  the 
best  proof  of  the  complete  disintegration  or  dissociation  of  the 
elements  in  the  mixing  process,  is  to  be  found  in  the  formation  of 
sulphate  of  lime,  and  the  consequent  deprivation  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  of  two  of  its  bases  ;  so  that,  while  it  is  undeniable  that  tribasic 
phosphate  is  immediately  reformed  in  the  soil,  we  consider  it  to  be 
reformed  in  such  a  conveniently  disseminated  manner,  as  to  facilitate 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  85 

its  attack  by  the  carbonic  acid  and  render  its  subsequent  solu- 
bility a  work  of  comparative  ease. 

In  lands  which  contain  an  abundant  or  even  a  moderate  supply 
of  lime,  there  can,  consequently,  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  rapid  de- 
composition of  the  acid  phosphates,  and  the  assimilation  of  their 
phosphoric  acid.  But  where  both  difficulty  and  danger  may  be  en- 
countered is  when  an  absence  or  deficiency  of  lime  characterizes  the 
soil.  For  in  such  cases,  not  only  will  the  phosphoric  acid  remain 
unassimilable,  but  the  excess  of  free  sulphuric  acid  may  exercise  a 
corrosive  action  on  the  roots,  or  combine  with  the  oxides  of  iron  to 
form  sulphate,  the  baneful  properties  of  which  we  have  dwelt  upon 
elsewhere. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  soil  analysis,  constituted  by  these 
considerations,  appear  to  us  to  be  conclusive,  and  they  will  not  fail 
to  add  their  weight  to  our  oft-repeated  assertion,  that  to  know 
what  elements  to  apply  and  in  what  form  to  apply  them,  we  must 
first  of  all  possess  perfect  information  on  the  physical  and  chemical 
properties  of  the  lands  under  treatment.  Do  they  lack  phosphoric 
acid,  and  have  they  plenty  of  lime  ?  Then  superphosphates  are  the 
natural  prescription.  But  if  they  are  shown  to  lack  a  sufficiency  of 
both  phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  they  must  either  be  well  limed  first, 
and  afterwards  receive  the  superphosphates,  or  we  must  devise  some 
other  form,  in  which  the  two  necessary  matters  may  be  simultaneous- 
ly plowed  in,  with  the  prospect  of  obtaining  speedy  and  beneficial 
results. 

We  have  already  striven  to  impress  our  readers  with  the  belief 
that  the  origin  of  manures,  or  the  form  in  which  they  present  the 
needful  constituents,  are  both  utterly  insignificant,  providing  those 
constituents  be  of  a  nature  to  become  at  once  available  for  the  crops. 
We  shall  therefore  be  understood  when  we  say  that  our  own  ten- 
dencies, based  upon  long  experience  and  experiments,  are  in  favor, 
wherever  it  is  possible,  of  substituting  the  use  of  precipitated  phos- 
phates for  the  acid  supers. 

Precipitated  phosphates  are  obtained  by  dissolving  the  raw  and 
finely  powdered  phosphatic  material  in  muriatic  acid,  which,  when 


86  MODERN    HIGH    FARMING. 

it  has  taken  up  as  much  as  it  can  possibly  retain,  is  neutralized  by 
the  addition  of  carbonate  of  lime  (common  chalk). 

The  deposit  which  ensues  from  this  operation  is  allowed  to  ac- 
cumulate, and  the  clear  liquid  is  then  decanted  off.  When  thoroughly 
dried,  the  precipitate  will  be  found  to  contain  from  75  to  85  per 
cent,  of  tribasic  phosphate,  in  a  state  of  physical  division,  which, 
for  similar  chemical  reasons,  is  common  with  that  of  superphos- 
phate. It  is  therefore  easily  decomposed  by  the  alkaline  carbonates 
in  the  soils,  and  made  soluble  by  the  carbonic  acid. 

We  have  heard  it  maintained,  that  the  price  of  this  preparation 
is  too  high  to  permit  of  its  being  generally  used  in  sufficient  quantity, 
and  that  superphosphates,  having  stood  the  test  of  time,  had  given 
results  which,  upon  the  whole,  were  satisfactory. 

On  general  principle  we  shall  not  attempt  to  deny  these  asser- 
tions, any  more  than  we  shall  refuse  to  admit  that  established 
interest  and  prejudice  are  both  in  their  favor;  but  we,  nevertheless, 
submit  that,  where  the  choice  is  between  two  articles — one  of  which 
is  shown  not  only  to  have  weak  points  but  to  sometimes  be  harmful, 
whereas  the  other  is  infallible,  the  acquisition  of  the  latter  is  a  true 
economy. 

We  shall  therefore  be  very  glad,  even  if  it  should  necessitate  a 
small  monetary  sacrifice,  to  see  precipitated  phosphates  more  largely 
and  frequently  employed ;  although  we  give  out  the  idea  with  a  full 
consciousness  of  the  vast  difficulties  which  attend  the  marking-out  of 
rigid  lines  for  the  cultivator's  guidance. 

The  farmer  holds  in  his  hands  the  threads  of  his  own  prosperity 
and  the  elements  necessary  to  his  own  success;  he  possesses  the  com- 
pass, by  means  of  which  his  bark  can  be  steered  into  port  with  flying 
colors ;  and  this  compass  is  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  soil 
he  tills.  Just  as  the  best  of  armies  are  paralyzed  without  a  leader, 
so  the  best  and  most  accomplished  chemists  can  never  give  a  sound 
opinion,  when  they  have  not  the  results  of  complete  investigation  to 
guide  them. 

In  the  course  of  our  remarks  upon  farm-yard  manures,  we  have 
laid  great  stress  upon  their  utter  inadequacy  to  restore  the  necessary 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  87 

elements  in  sufficient  quantity  to  the  soil,  and  even  when,  by  work- 
ing into  the  compost  heaps  a  sufficiency  of  phosphatic  materials,  we 
bring  up  the  phosphoric  acid  to  the  requisite  standard,  they  will 
still  lack  other  elements  to  make  them  perfect. 

A  complete  manure  may  be  denned  a&  that  which  puts  back,  in 
its  true  proportion,  each  element  taken  away  by  the  preceding  crop. 
And  to  exemplify  this,  we  take  a  crop  of  wheat,  estimating  the 
average  production  at  38  to  40  bushels  of  grain  per  acre,  or  at  4,750 
pounds  in  weight  including  the  straw.  On  the  basis  of  our  previous 
calculations,  we  shall  find  that  this  crop  has  approximately  taken 
from  the  soil  : 

55  pounds  of  Nitrogen, 

25      "       "    Phosphoric  acid, 

30      "       "    Potash, 

without  counting  the  lime,  the  silica  and  other  matters,  which  we 
shall  presume  a  good  old  soil  to  contain  in  sufficient  quantity  ;  and 
that,  therefore,  if  we  wish  the  production  to  be  maintained,  the 
same  amounts  must  be  returned. 

Now,  the  calculation  of  the  requisite  quantity  of  well-made  farm- 
yard manure  to  represent  the  nitrogen,  can  be  easily  made,  since  we 
Imve  already  shown  that  in  every  hundred  pounds  there  is  about 
half-a-pound  of  this  precious  fertilizer  : 

^  pound  Nitrogen  =  100  Ibs.  farm  manure. 

55  pounds      "        =  11, 000  Ibs.  "        "      or  5^  tons  per  acre. 
And  our  experience  has  taught  us  that  of  all  those  who  farm,  say, 
50  acres  of  land,  there  are  very  few  who  can  produce  275  tons  of 
high- class  stable  dung  ! 

We  must  consequently  look  to  compound  fertilizers  of  chemical 
manufacture  to  supply  the  deficiency,  unless  within  easy  reach  are 
to  be  found  such  articles  as  we  have  tabulated  on  page  49,  in  a 
form  adapted  to  convenient  manipulation. 

So  many  difficulties  are  connected,  however,  with  the  manu- 
facture of  chemical  fertilizers  on  the  farm  —  in  arriving  at  the  proper 
proportions,  in  the  constant  attendance  to  the  perfect  working  and 
decomposition  —  that  we  have  come  to  consider  the  abandonment  of 


88  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

home-made  chemical  manures  as  the  natural  outcome  of  practical 
experiment. 

The  manufacturer  who  has  suitable  works,  and  produces  on  the 
large  scale;  who  has  the  needful  knowledge  and  practice,  and  the 
needful  implements  at  hand,  buys  his  raw  material  by  cargoes  to  the 
best  advantage.  He  can  therefore  very  easily  furnish  well-made  com- 
pound manures,  and  guarantee  them  by  chemical  analysis  to  contain 
the  elements  desired,  at  a  price  which,  all  things  considered,  will  be 
less  than  the  cost  of  home  fabrication. 

With  soluble  or  precipitated  phosphates  as  the  basis  of  operations, 
we  can  now  obtain  complete  manures  for  every  culture,  made  accord- 
ing to  any  formula,  and  containing  in  a  readily  available  and 
assimilable  form  all  the  ingredients  called  for. 

The  raw  materials  having  already  been  dwelt  upofa,  and  their 
attributes  and  chemical  composition  described,  it  is  only  needful  to 
atdd  that  when  the  due  proportions  of  each  kind  have  been  accurately 
weighed,  they  are  all  mixed  up  together  by  special  machinery,  and 
so  carefully  ground,  sifted  and  blended,  as  to  make  it  impossible  to 
distinguish  with  the  naked  eye  that  any  mixture  has  taken  place. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS HOW   TO   READ   AND  UNDERSTAND  CHEMISTS' 

CERTIFICATES USE  OF   "COMPLETE"  AND    "SIMPLE"  MAN- 
URES   CONCLUSION. 

If  we  were  now  asked  to  pithily  sum  up  the  great  practical  con- 
clusion to  be  drawn  from  our  lessons,  we  should  reply,  not  ' '  Farmer, 
know  Thyself!"  but,  Farmer,  know  thy  soils  and  analyze  thy  ma- 
nure;" believing  as  we  do,  in  all  sincerity,  that  this  is  the  sum«of 
intelligent  high  farming. 

The  mere  possession  of  an  analysis,  however,  conveys  no  infor- 
mation, unless  it  be  thoroughly  understood,  any  more  than  a  hundred 
pounds  of  candles  would  be  of  any  service  to  a  man  in  a  dark  room, 
if  he  had  nothing  to  strike  a  light  with  ;  and  we  shall  therefore  en- 
deavor to  translate  the  meaning  of  the  statements  made  by  chemists 
in  their  certificates. 

THE  MOISTURE  is  the  water  which  is  introduced  into  the 
mixture  by  the  weak  sulphuric  acid,  and  in  a  properly  prepared 
compound  should  never  exceed  12  to  15  per  cent.  The  sellers  of 
chemical  manures  should  invariably  be  required  to  guarantee  a  min- 
imum of  each  active  element  contained  in  a  given  product,  in  its 
normal  state. 

Thus,  for  instance,  a  sample  of  superphosphate  taken  at  the 
works,  may,  when  despatched  by  mail,  have  contained  20  per  cent. 
of  moisture  and  10 per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid;  but  between 
the  time  of  its  dispatch,  its  arrival  at  destination,  and  its  analysis 
by  the  intending  purchaser,  so  small  a  sample  may  have  suffered  the 
loss  of  5  per  cent,  in  weight  by  evaporation. 


00  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

Presuming,  therefore,  that  it  originally  weighed  10  ounces,  it  will 
then  only  weigh  9)^  ounces,  and  nothing  but  water  having  been  lost, 
these  9*^  ounces  will  now  contain  12  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid. 

If  the  manure  be  purchased  upon  this  sample  without  further 
analysis,  as  frequently  occurs,  the  buyer  will  pay  on  the  basis  of 
12  per  cent,  but  will,  in  reality,  only  receive  10  per  cent,  and  so  incur 
a  loss  of  $1.50  or  $2.00  per  ton. 

In  many  instances,  farmers  are  induced  to  buy  manures  at  so 
much  per  ton,  guaranteed  to  contain,  in  the  dry  state,  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  active  elements.  When  analyzed,  they  are  found  to  be 
loaded  with  20  or  even  25  per  cent,  of  water;  and  therefore,  if  sold  as 
containing,  say,  20  per  cent,  of  acid  phosphate,  will  only  contain  15. 

ORGANIC  MATTER  consists  of  all  substances  subject  to  decom- 
position by  fire,  or  to  natural  decay:  —  hair,  wool,  woody  fibre, 
cotton,  vegetable  and  animal  refuse,  are  consequently  placed  in  this 
category  by  the  chemical  analyst.  The  value  of  their  presence  lies 
in  their  percentage  of  nitrogen,  and  this  being  very  variable  indeed, 
the  addition  of  the  words  nitrogenous,  or  non-nitrogenous,  and  the 
indication  of  the  equivalent  quantity  of  ammonia,  should  always  be 
demanded.  Where  this  precautionary  measure  is  neglected,  very 
grave  misapprehensions  frequently  ensue,  from  the  simple  fact  that 
common  wood-shavings,  mixed  into  a  manure,  would  be  truly  stated 
as  organic  matter. 

When  these  words  are  qualified  by  that  of  "  nitrogenous,"  a 
glance  at  the  foot  of  the  certificate  should  show  us  the  equivalent 
in  ammoniacal  salts.  Thus  in  Peruvian  guano,  it  was  no  uncommon 
thing  to  find  50  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter,  containing 
17^  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  and  equal  to  14)^  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  ; 
and  hence  the  prevalent  custom  for  unprincipled  traders  to  manu- 
facture spurious  guanos,  which  were  bought  by  the  unsuspecting 
farmer,  under  the  impression  that  the  term  "  organic  matter"  was 
just  as  significant  of  value  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other. 

SOLUBLE  PHOSPHORIC  ACID  represents,  as  we  have  already  pointed 
out,  the  quantity  of  phosphate  of  lime  made  soluble  in  water  by  the 
excess  of  sulphuric  acid.  For  example:  a  superphosphate  of  12  per 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  91 

cent,  guaranteed  strength  is  equal  to  26.16  per  cent,  of  tribasic 
phosphate  of  lime,  but  not  of  biphosphate,  or  monophosphate,  as 
might  be  easily  supposed,  and  of  which  no  more  than  about  17  per 
cent,  would  be  present. 

When  buying  phosphatic  manures,  it  is  always  well  to  have  a 
distinct  understanding  as  to  the  word  soluble,  as  many  makers  pro- 
duce an  article  which,  though  only  partially  soluble  in  water, 
readily  dissolves  in  citrate  of  ammonia.  It  frequently  happens  that 
a  superphosphate,  even  when  made  with  all  care  and  skill,  suffers 
from  the  subsequent  reaction  of  the  iron  and  alumina,  what  is  called 
a  retrogradation  or  going  back  to  insolubility,  and  when  this  is  so, 
becomes  only  partially  soluble  in  water,  while  remaining  entirely 
soluble  in  the  other  liquid  named. 

INSOLUBLE  PHOSPHATES  only  occur  in  cases  where  imperfect 
decomposition  and  want  of  skill  have  characterized  the  manipulation ; 
and  as  no  immediate  benefit  can  be  derived  from  applying  them  to 
the  soil  in  this  form,  which  cannot  be  as  readily  attained  by  using 
raw  phosphates,  the  value  should  be  brought  down  to  the  actual 
market  level  of  the  latter.  Presuming,  for  instance,  the  soluble 
phosphates  to  be  worth  one  dollar  per  unit,  these  insoluble  matters 
must  not  be  charged  at  a  higher  rate  than  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents. 

SULPHATE  OF  LIME  results  from  the  process  which  goes  on  in 
the  mixers  already  described.  It  invariably  exists  in  large  propor- 
tions in  all  superphosphates,  and  its  chemically  great  affinity  for 
water  facilitates  the  drying  of  compounds  which,  in  many  cases, 
would  otherwise  retain  the  form  of  paste.  Its  efficacy  is  well  recog- 
nized, and,  as  plaster  of  Paris,  or  baked  gypsum,  it  is  frequently 
purchased  and  applied  with  good  results  to  grass  lands. 

This  gypsum  is  not  taken  into  consideration,  in  fixing  the  value 
of  a  manufactured  manure,  and  the  farmer  who  has  been  in  the 
habit  of  buying  plaster  of  Paris,  may  cease  this  outlay  from  the  day  he 
commences  to  use  superphosphates,  it  being  no  longer  necessary. 

ALKALINE  SALTS  generally  consist  of  sulphate  of  soda  and  potash, 
in  ordinary  mineral  superphosphates,  and  in  their  case  are  too  in- 
significant to  require  any  special  attention. 


92  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

When  compound  manures  .are  in  question,  however,  this  heading 
will  comprehend  the  potash  and  any  nitrates  that  may  have  been 
added  to  them,  and  will  then  be  of  considerable  importance.  It  is 
the  common  practice  when  estimating  the  nitrates,  to  add  the  quan- 
tity of  nitrogen  they  contain  to  that  found  in  the  organic  matter, 
and  calculate  the  equivalent  of  the  whole  as  ammonia. 

Even  in  cases  where  no  organic  matter  exists,  the  same  mode  of 
estimation  can  be  applied,  as,  supposing  the  manure  to  contain  7^ 
per  cent,  of  nitrate  of  soda,  it  will  be  equivalent  to  1^  per  cent,  of 
ammonia,  or  1%  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  The  potash  salts  are  chiefly 
found  in  manures,  either  as  muriate  or  nitrate,  and  their  value  is  de- 
termined by  reducing  them  to  their  equivalent  in  pure  potash. 

INSOLUBLE  SILICEOUS  MATTER  means  the  earthy  and  sandy 
bodies  forming  the  gangue  by  which  all  mineral  phosphates  are  sur- 
rounded, and  from  which  it  is  impossible  to  entirely  free  them.  In 
supei  phosphates  or  compound  manures,  the  very  maximum  quantity 
of  these  useless  substances  should  be  6^£  to  7  per  cent.,  and  anything 
above  these  figures  would  suggest  to  our  minds  the  addition  of  some 
worthless  rubbish,  with  a  fraudulent  intention. 

As  complementary  to  this  explanation  of  the  various  constituents, 
shown  by  chemical  analysis  to  make  up  the  composition  of  a 
manure,  it  will  be  wise  to  give  a  practical  illustration,  and  we  there- 
fore append  the  analysis  of  a  "phospho-guano,"  or  artificially  pre- 
pared guano,  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid. 

Moisture 9.12 

*Nitrogenous  Organic  Matter 38.57 

Phosphoric  Acid  Soluble  in  Water 13.20 

Insoluble  Phosphate  of  Lime 5.01 

Sulphate  of  Lime 19.26 

tAlkaline  Salts 9.97 

Insoluble  Matters .  4.87 


100.00 

*Containing  Nitrogen 9.00 

Equal  to  Fixed  Ammonia 10.92 

tContaining  Potash...  .    2.75 


MODERN   HIGH   FARMING.  93 

Where  Stassftirt  salts  are  used  by  manure  manufacturers,  a  con- 
siderable danger  sometimes  arises  from  their  containing  a  serious 
enemy  to  vegetation,  in  the  form  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  which, 
when  not  driven  off  by  the  application  of  sufficient  heat,  constitutes 
a  positive  poison  to  plant  life. 

When  the  lands  under  cultivation  are  characterized  by  the  homo- 
geneity, or  equally  balanced  proportion  of  their  chemical  elements, 
the  yearly  application  of  compound,  or  "complete"  manures  will 
sustain  their  health  and  strength,  and  increase  their  fecundity,  but 
where,  as  in  most  cases,  one  of  the  essential  elements  is  alone  found 
to  be  wanting,  the  others  being  present  in  abundance,  the  temporary 
employment  of  a  "  simple"  manure  is  clearly  indicated. 

Supposing,  for  instance,  a  soil  to  be  rich  in  nitrogen  and  potash, 
but  devoid  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  presuming  cereals  to  be  the  de- 
sired culture,  the  repeated  introduction  of  phosphatic  materials  will 
accomplish  what  is  necessary,  until  after  about  the  third  crop,  when 
the  nitrogen  will  probably  have  become  exhausted. 

That  the  eventual  recourse  to  compound  or  "complete"  ma- 
nures is  essential,  therefore,  may  be  considered  conclusive,  even  if 
we  had  not  for  our  guidance  the  experience  of  our  grandfathers, 
who,  having  always  contented  themselves  with  their  stable  offal, 
were  finally  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  system  of  rotation,  be- 
cause their  manures  were  incapable  of  returning,  pro  rata,  the  ele- 
ments their  crops  had  taken  away.  To  set  forth  any  general  formula 
for  universal  use  and  for  every  kind  of  culture,  would  be  as  contrary 
to  our  theories  as  the  swallowing  of  quack  specifics  for  every  hu- 
man ill  is  against  our  practice,  nor  would  it  be  consistent  with  the 
doctrine,  "do  all  that  you  have  to  do  with  a  full  knowledge  of  what 
you  are  doing!" 

It  is  time  that  what  has  been  so  long  and  so  exclusively  known 
to  chemists,  should  become  known  to  the  farmer,  and  that  of  two 
things  he  should  at  once  choose  one.  Let  him  either  deny  the  truth 
and  boldly  refuse  to  be  convinced,  or  fall  into  the  ranks  and  profit 
by  those  lessons  taught  by  nature.  They  who,  dissatisfied  with  the 
miserable  results  of  their  traditionary  usages,  seek  to  raise  their  minds 


94  MODERN   HIGH   FARMING. 

to  the  level  of  modern  science,  will  hardly  fail  to  perceive  how 
coarse  and  ignorant  is  that  prejudice,  how  base  and  grovelling  those 
capacities,  which  still  refuse  to  recognize  its  wondrous  revelations. 

The  fossilized  systems  which  were  good  enough  for  a  by-gone 
age  cannot  any  longer  assimilate  with  our  gigantic  progress.  They 
do  not  keep  step  with  the  conceptions  of  natural  law  and  order 
forced  upon  our  minds  by  modern  thought.  Are  not  agriculturists, 
of  all  men,  the  ones  to  deal  with  that  question  which  dominates  all 
others  in  natural  interest  and  importance  —  the  question  of  our  food 
supply  ?  When  placed  upon  the  scale  of  sober  judgment  with  every 
other  social  problem,  does  not  this  one  outweigh  them  all,  and  come 
crashing  down  like  lead  when  weighed  with  feathers  ? 

Is  it  not  to  feed  our  children  that  we  make  all  the  best  efforts  of 
our  lives?  And  where  the  food  of  nations  depends  upon  the  issue, 
should  not  every  reasoning  being  lend  strength  to  tear  aside  that 
curtain  which  hides  the  sun  of  knowledge  and  holds  men's  minds  in 
ignorance  and  darkness  ? 

We  are  stepping  on  far,  we  are  stepping  on  swiftly.  The  Schools 
are  rendering  us  assistance,  and  hurrying  us  on  to  emancipation;  and 
so  surely  as  the  intellect  develops  and  expands,  so  surely  will  the 
modern  farmer  cast  aside  the  last  remnants  of  his  prejudices,  and, 
seeing  that  the  turn  has  come  in  the  tide  of  his  affairs,  will  take  it  at 
the  flood  and  be  led  on  to  fortune. 


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